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BAT99-98
BAT99-98
BAT99-98
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BAT99-98

NGC 2070; full-size image is annotated
Observation data
Epoch J2000      Equinox J2000
Constellation Dorado[1]
Right ascension 05h 38m 39.144s[2]
Declination −69° 06′ 21.30″[2]
Apparent magnitude (V) 13.38[3]
Characteristics
Evolutionary stage Wolf–Rayet[4]
Spectral type WN6[4]
B−V color index -0.10[3]
Astrometry
Proper motion (μ) RA: 1.680[2] mas/yr
Dec.: 0.512[2] mas/yr
Parallax (π)0.0288±0.0159 mas[2]
Distance165,000 ly
(50,600 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)−8.11[4]
Absolute bolometric
magnitude (Mbol)		−12.0[4]
Details
Mass226 (highly uncertain)[4] M☉
Radius37.5[4] R☉
Luminosity5,012,000[4] L☉
Luminosity (visual, LV)141,000[4] L☉
Temperature45,000[4] K
Other designations
Brey 79, NGC 2070 MEL J, SSTISAGEMC J053839.14-690621.2, BAT99 98, LMC AB12, Melnick 49, 2MASS J05383914-6906211, UCAC4 105‑014273
Database references
SIMBADdata

BAT99-98 is a Wolf–Rayet star located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, in NGC 2070 near the R136 cluster in the Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus). At estimates of 226 M☉ and 5,012,000 L☉, it is one of the most massive known stars, and close to one of the most luminous stars currently known.[4]

Observations

[edit]

A 1978 survey carried out by Jorge Melnick covered the 30 Doradus region and found six new Wolf–Rayet (WR) stars, all belonging to the WN sequence. The survey observed stars that were above[clarification needed] apparent magnitude 14 and within 2 arcminutes of the centre of the 30 Doradus nebula, and the star now known as BAT99‑98 was labelled as star J. It was found to have a magnitude of 13.5 and a spectral type of WN5.[5]

The following year, thirteen new WR stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud were reported, one of which was Mel J. It was numbered 12, and referred to as AB12, or LMC AB12 to distinguish it from the better-known AB stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud.[6]

Melnick conducted another study of stars in NGC 2070 and gave BAT99-98 the number 49, reclassifying its spectral type as WN7.[7]

Neither the AB12 nor the Mel J designation is in common use, although "Melnick 49" is sometimes seen. More commonly, LMC Wolf–Rayet stars are referred to by R (Radcliffe Observatory) numbers, Brey (Breysacher catalogue numbers[8]), or BAT99 numbers.[9]

Characteristics

[edit]

BAT99‑98 is located near the R136 cluster and has similar mass–luminosity properties to the massive stars in the cluster itself. It is estimated that the star held 250 M☉ at its birth and has since lost 20 M☉.[4] It sheds a large amount of mass through a stellar wind that moves at 1,600 km/s.[4] The star has a surface temperature of 45,000 K and a luminosity of 5,012,000 L☉. Although the star is very luminous due to its high temperature, much of that light is ultraviolet and invisible to humans – making it 141,000 times brighter than the Sun visually. It is now classified as a WN6 star, and models suggest that it is 7.5 million years old.

Fate

[edit]

The future of BAT99-98 depends on its mass loss. It is thought that stars this massive can never lose enough mass to avoid a catastrophic end. The result is likely to be a supernova, hypernova, gamma-ray burst, or perhaps almost no visible explosion, leaving behind a black hole or neutron star. The exact details depend heavily on the timing and amount of the mass loss, with current models not fully reproducing observed stars, but the majority of massive stars in the Local Group are expected to produce Type Ib or Ic supernovae, sometimes with a gamma-ray burst, and leave behind a black hole.[10] However, for some stars of exceptionally high mass, the supernova event is triggered by pair instability and leaves behind no remnant at all.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

BAT99-98

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
BAT99-98 is a of spectral type WN6h situated in the (30 Doradus) within the , approximately 160,000 light-years from . As one of the most massive stars known in the , it has an estimated current mass of 226 solar masses (M⊙) and an initial mass of at least 250 M⊙ (as determined in studies from the early 2010s), placing it near the theoretical upper limit for stellar masses before instability sets in. Its bolometric reaches about 5 × 10⁶ L⊙ (where L⊙ is the Sun's ; as determined in studies from the early 2010s), making it one of the most luminous objects observable, with an around 45,000 K driving intense stellar winds that eject material at rates exceeding 10⁻⁵ M⊙ per year. Located near the dense star cluster at the heart of the , BAT99-98 contributes significantly to the region's intense ionization, powering much of the surrounding H II emission through its ultraviolet radiation and contributing to the Lyman continuum flux with log Q(H) ≈ 50.5 photons per second. Observations indicate it is likely a single , with no detected binary companion despite spectroscopic monitoring. Its position in a low- environment like the (about 1/2 solar ) provides crucial insights into the of extremely massive , where reduced metal content allows for higher initial masses and slower wind mass loss compared to Milky Way counterparts. As a late-stage massive star, BAT99-98 exemplifies the Wolf–Rayet phase, characterized by strong emission lines from , , and oxygen due to its hydrogen-depleted atmosphere. Its extreme parameters challenge models of stellar formation and evolution, particularly regarding the pairwise instability threshold around 200–260 M⊙, beyond which stars may collapse directly to black holes without exploding. Ongoing studies using and data continue to refine its properties, highlighting its role as a benchmark for understanding the upper end of the in star-forming regions.

Discovery and Observations

Discovery

BAT99-98 was first identified in 1978 by astronomer Jorge Melnick as part of a spectroscopic survey targeting the 30 Doradus region in the , where it was recognized as one of six newly discovered Wolf-Rayet stars belonging to the WN sequence. The survey employed low-resolution to detect emission-line objects among bright stars in the core of the , using the 4-meter telescope at the in . This effort systematically scanned the dense stellar field to uncover massive, evolved stars like BAT99-98, which exhibited an of 13.5 and an early WN5 spectral classification based on prominent broad emission lines of nitrogen and helium. Melnick's findings, published in Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, included the initial equatorial coordinates (approximately RA 05h 38m 44s, Dec -69° 06' 12") and basic UBV photometry for the new Wolf-Rayet stars, establishing BAT99-98's position near the central cluster and confirming its status as a luminous, hydrogen-deficient object.

Observational History

Following its initial identification, BAT99-98 underwent reclassification from WN5 to WN7 in , based on deeper of stars in the NGC 2070 complex that revealed stronger nitrogen emission lines consistent with later WN subtypes. This assessment was part of a broader survey identifying new Wolf-Rayet candidates in the . In 2008, Schnurr et al. conducted an intensive spectroscopic survey of late-type nitrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet stars in the , refining the spectral type of BAT99-98 to WN6 through detailed analysis of emission line ratios and measurements, with no evidence of binarity detected. Subsequent studies focused on quantitative modeling. In 2014, Hainich et al. performed a comprehensive analysis of nearly all known WN stars in the using line-blanketed non-LTE atmosphere models from the Potsdam Wolf-Rayet (PoWR) code, fitting optical and ultraviolet spectra of BAT99-98 to derive stellar temperature, , and wind properties, confirming its high and single-star status despite potential binary complications. This work integrated multi-epoch observations to account for line variability and . Photometric measurements evolved with improved surveys and calibrations. Early estimates placed the apparent visual magnitude around 13.5, but refined ground-based and space-based photometry, incorporating corrections for emission-line contamination and interstellar reddening, yielded a value of 13.38; the corresponding absolute visual magnitude of -8.11 reflects its intrinsic brightness at the distance. Astrometric data were further enhanced by the 2022 Data Release 3, which provided precise proper motions and positions for members, enabling better integration of BAT99-98's kinematics with cluster dynamics in the 30 Doradus region.

Astrometry and Visibility

BAT99-98 possesses equatorial coordinates in the J2000 epoch of 05h 38m 39.144s and −69° 06′ 21.30″. Its measured proper motion components are 1.680 mas/yr in and 0.512 mas/yr in , as determined from Data Release 3 observations. Owing to its position within the , the distance to BAT99-98 is estimated at 165,000 light-years (50,600 pc), consistent with the established systemic distance to the galaxy; this placement yields an absolute bolometric magnitude of −12.0. Individual measurements from are not reliable at this distance. With an apparent visual magnitude of 13.38, BAT99-98 is not visible to the and requires telescopes with apertures of at least 8 inches for effective observation, restricted to locations in the where the constellation is accessible.

Physical Characteristics

Spectral Type and Classification

BAT99-98 is classified as a WN6(h) Wolf-Rayet star, a nitrogen-rich subtype defined by prominent emission lines of N III and N IV alongside strong He II lines in its optical spectrum. The WN designation signifies stars with spectra dominated by ionized and emissions, reflecting CNO-processed material from advanced nuclear burning stages exposed by substantial mass loss. These stars exhibit broad emission lines broadened by high-velocity stellar winds, typically exceeding 1000 km/s, originating from the dense, expanding envelopes surrounding the helium-burning core. Within the WR sequence, the subtype 6 places BAT99-98 in the mid-range, where N IV λ4058 and N III λλ4634–41 lines are comparably strong, along with He II λ4686, setting it apart from earlier WN subtypes (WN2–5) that feature dominant higher-ionization N V lines and weaker N III. The presence of neutral lines, primarily from N III, further distinguishes mid-sequence WN stars like BAT99-98 from their hotter, earlier counterparts. Unlike WC subtypes, which are carbon-oxygen rich and show intense C III–IV and O V–VI emissions indicative of helium-burning products, WN stars such as BAT99-98 lack significant carbon features, emphasizing their dominance from incomplete CNO cycling. The '(h)' qualifier denotes detectable emission lines, indicating residual in the wind rather than a fully depleted atmosphere.

Stellar Parameters

BAT99-98 is classified as a WN6-type Wolf-Rayet star, characterized by an atmosphere with residual , as indicated by the (h) qualifier, and strong emission lines. The stellar mass of BAT99-98 is estimated at 226 M⊙ (with high uncertainty due to its location in the crowded R136 field), derived from the mass-luminosity relation for core helium-burning Wolf-Rayet stars applied to its bolometric luminosity, assuming chemical homogeneity and minimal prior mass loss. The bolometric luminosity of BAT99-98 is determined to be 5,012,000 L⊙ (log L/L⊙ = 6.70), obtained through spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting of ultraviolet, optical, and infrared photometry, scaled to the distance of the Large Magellanic Cloud (modulus of 18.5 mag) and corrected for interstellar reddening (E_{B-V} ≈ 0.8 mag). The effective temperature is estimated at around 45,000 K based on its spectral type and comparison to similar WN6 stars; the stellar radius is approximately 37.5 R⊙, calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann relation from the luminosity and temperature. These parameters are subject to uncertainties from nebular contamination and the crowded environment. Bolometric corrections are applied during SED analysis to account for the star's hot temperature and emission-line contributions, ensuring consistency between modeled and observed fluxes. These parameters highlight BAT99-98's extreme evolutionary state, underscoring the challenges in modeling such massive, hot stars in low-metallicity environments like the .

Mass Loss and Winds

BAT99-98 experiences extreme mass loss driven by powerful stellar , a hallmark of its Wolf-Rayet phase. These have resulted in the loss of approximately 20 M_⊙ over the star's lifetime (based on initial mass estimates ≥250 M⊙ minus current mass), significantly altering its structure by stripping away outer hydrogen-rich layers and exposing the underlying core. This total mass lost is estimated through evolutionary models incorporating observed wind properties and broadening for similar stars, which reflect the cumulative effects of the outflow. The stellar winds of BAT99-98 reach terminal velocities typical of WN stars, around 1500–2000 km/s. The current mass-loss rate is estimated at around 10^{-4.6} M_⊙ yr^{-1}, inferred from analyses of comparable WN6(h) stars in the LMC using non-local atmosphere models that account for clumping and balance; exact values for BAT99-98 remain uncertain due to limited spectral data. These winds are primarily driven by exerted on ionized spectral lines, particularly those of metals like iron, within the hot, dense atmosphere of the Wolf-Rayet star. This line-driving mechanism accelerates material from the stellar surface, leading to the high velocities observed. Supporting evidence comes from P Cygni line profiles in the star's optical and spectra of similar objects, where blue-shifted absorption troughs indicate the wind's expansion velocity, while broad emission components arise from in the ionized wind material. The reduced of the LMC environment leads to lower mass-loss rates compared to counterparts. The intense mass loss via these winds not only broadens emission lines—providing diagnostics for and —but also facilitates the rapid evolution of BAT99-98 by efficiently removing envelope material, transitioning it toward a more compact helium-burning phase. Quantitative estimates of the total mass lost rely on integrating derived rates over the star's post-main-sequence lifetime, adjusted for effects in the environment.

Location and Environment

Galactic Position

BAT99-98 resides within the (LMC), a dwarf irregular orbiting the at a of approximately 165,000 light-years. Within the LMC, the star is situated in the southwestern region of the prominent bar structure, a central elongated feature spanning much of the galaxy's disk. Its projected position relative to the LMC's dynamical center (at RA 05^h 23^m 34^s.5, Dec. −69° 45′ 22″, J2000) is about 3.8° east and 0.65° north, corresponding to a deprojected of roughly 1.4 kpc from the center when accounting for the LMC's inclination. The celestial coordinates of BAT99-98 are RA 05^h 38^m 39^s.26, Dec. −69° 06′ 20″.9 (J2000). The LMC's overall metallicity is approximately half that of the Sun (Z ≈ 0.008, compared to solar Z ≈ 0.014–0.02), a subsolar environment that promotes more efficient massive with reduced line-driven mass loss and altered evolutionary tracks relative to conditions. This lower metal content influences the winds and surface compositions of stars like BAT99-98, contributing to their extreme luminosities and rapid evolution.

Association with Nebulae and Clusters

BAT99-98 resides within the , cataloged as NGC 2070 or 30 Doradus, a giant spanning several hundred parsecs in the and representing the most active star-forming complex in the Local Group. This environment is characterized by dense molecular clouds and ionized gas sculpted by feedback from embedded massive stars. BAT99-98 is positioned near the at the nebula's core, with a projected separation of approximately 4 parsecs based on astrometric positions. The star's output, as a nitrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet system, plays a key role in ionizing the surrounding , producing around 1050.510^{50.5} Lyman continuum photons per second and thereby contributing to the nebula's bright emission lines and overall morphology. This radiation-driven feedback helps maintain the H II region's expansion and influences the distribution of gas and dust in the vicinity, complementing the dominant ionization from R136's O-type stars. BAT99-98 shares a common origin with the cluster, emerging from a massive starburst in the that peaked around 7–8 million years ago, as inferred from the evolutionary stages of its Wolf-Rayet population. Although itself is younger at about 2–3 million years, the broader region's extended allows for coeval massive stars like BAT99-98, which may experience dynamical perturbations from the cluster's gravitational field, potentially affecting its trajectory within the association.

Significance

Most Massive Known Star

BAT99-98 is recognized as one of the most massive confirmed single stars known, with a present-day mass of 226 M⊙_\odot derived from mass-luminosity relations applied to its observed luminosity of log⁡(L/L⊙)=6.7\log(L/L_\odot) = 6.7. This estimate assumes it is a single star, though spectroscopic fits suggest a possible undetected companion, and it originates from analysis of its Wolf-Rayet spectral features and photometric data in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). This mass is comparable to leading candidates, notably in the same LMC . In 2022, high-resolution optical imaging revised 's current mass downward to 170–230 M⊙_\odot (∼200 M⊙_\odot average); however, 2025 models estimate its initial mass at 346 ± 42 M⊙_\odot and current mass at approximately 233 M⊙_\odot. BAT99-98's mass challenges theoretical predictions of a fundamental upper limit near 150 M⊙_\odot for non-interacting single stars, stemming from instabilities in and pair-instability processes during core evolution, though low-metallicity environments allow higher masses. In comparisons to other extreme massive stars, BAT99-98 exceeds estimates for Westerlund 1-26 in the Galactic cluster Westerlund 1, which has an initial mass of roughly 150–200 M⊙_\odot inferred from its extreme luminosity and evolutionary tracks as a red hypergiant, though its current mass is significantly lower due to extensive mass loss. Similarly, historical estimates for the primary in the η Carinae binary system reached ~200 M⊙_\odot based on its Great Eruption ejecta and luminosity, but modern analyses favor a lower current total system mass of 100–120 M⊙_\odot amid uncertainties from its complex binarity and variability. The LMC's low metallicity (about 0.5 Z⊙_\odot) plays a key role, as reduced line-driven winds allow very massive stars to evolve with less mass shedding than in the higher-metallicity Milky Way, preserving higher masses like that of BAT99-98. As of 2025, BAT99-98 ranks among the top most massive single stars, with recent studies confirming its high mass using refined evolutionary models for low-metallicity very massive stars, though R136a1's updated estimate of ∼233 M⊙_\odot places it slightly higher. Ongoing surveys of young clusters continue to investigate potential higher-mass examples.

Implications for Stellar Evolution

The exceptionally high initial mass of BAT99-98, estimated at approximately 250 M⊙ (with current mass ∼226 M⊙), places it near the upper limit of the mass range (140–260 M⊙) predicted for pair-instability supernovae (PISNe) in low-metallicity environments like the (LMC). However, at LMC metallicity (Z ≈ 0.5 Z⊙), theoretical models indicate that only stars exceeding 300 M⊙ are likely to undergo pair-creation supernovae, suggesting that BAT99-98 may instead evolve toward direct core collapse into an without a luminous explosion. This challenges the traditional PISN mass boundaries, as the star's survival to the Wolf-Rayet phase implies reduced mass loss rates that preserve sufficient core mass for collapse-dominated fates, thereby constraining the -dependent thresholds for explosive versus non-explosive endpoints in very massive star (VMS) evolution. Insights into the formation of VMS like BAT99-98 highlight the role of dense stellar environments and low . Its proximity to the cluster in the suggests possible formation through hierarchical merging of protostars in a young, massive cluster, where dynamical interactions enable growth beyond the nominal Eddington limit for isolated accretion. Alternatively, the LMC's sub-solar facilitates enhanced accretion by reducing from metal line opacity, allowing protostellar envelopes to accumulate mass more efficiently without premature disruption. These mechanisms underscore how low-metallicity settings in extragalactic starbursts can produce outliers like BAT99-98, informing the initial mass function's tail in metal-poor galaxies. The properties of BAT99-98 have prompted refinements in evolutionary models for stars exceeding 150 M⊙, particularly at LMC-like metallicities. Extended tracks, incorporating enhanced mass loss and , now simulate paths up to 500–600 M⊙, revealing that such VMS spend much of their lives as hydrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet stars before rapid core evolution. These updates address gaps in pre-2014 models by integrating observed luminosities and wind strengths from BAT99-98, improving predictions for post-main-sequence tracks and the chemical yields from VMS in low-Z environments. Recent 2025 studies, including hydrodynamic models, further refine these insights amid ongoing debates on VMS masses.

Evolutionary Status and Fate

Current Evolutionary Stage

BAT99-98 is in the Wolf–Rayet phase as a WN star, with its envelope significantly depleted to expose layers processed by the , showing broad emission lines dominated by and . This indicates an advanced stage of massive star evolution, potentially still on the via chemically homogeneous evolution (CHE) due to rotational mixing in the low-metallicity environment, or in early core burning. The star's evolutionary path traces back to an O-type progenitor of very high initial mass, which may have bypassed traditional stages through CHE, developing WR characteristics early in its lifetime while maintaining core burning. Extensive mass loss via radiatively driven has contributed to the surface composition, evidenced by the low content in the and high from atmospheric modeling, aligning with theoretical tracks for stars above 100 solar masses at low .

Predicted End States

BAT99-98 is anticipated to reach the end of its life in approximately 1–2 million years, culminating in a core-collapse of type Ib or Ic, consistent with the evolutionary pathways of hydrogen-depleted Wolf-Rayet stars at low metallicity. This terminal event stems from the exhaustion of its helium core, triggering collapse under gravity once central temperatures exceed those required for further . Given its estimated current mass exceeding 100 solar masses, the may manifest as a —an exceptionally energetic explosion—particularly if rapid persists, potentially accompanied by a long-duration under favorable conditions of low and angular momentum conservation. However, recent models at Large Magellanic Cloud indicate a low probability for production in standard scenarios, due to efficient mass loss reducing the core's rotational support. The remnant outcome favors direct formation, either through a failed where the supernova energy is insufficient to unbind the envelope or via without a visible outburst, especially for progenitors with helium cores above 40 solar masses. Pair-instability mechanisms could contribute if the final core mass falls in the 65–130 range, leading to partial or total disruption without a remnant, though enhanced mass loss in the LMC environment typically prevents entry into this regime. The likelihood of a remnant is negligible, as BAT99-98's mass exceeds the typical threshold of 8–20 solar masses for such outcomes. Uncertainties in the final fate hinge on the precise terminal mass, which depends on uncertain mass-loss rates during the Wolf-Rayet phase, and the star's , with LMC conditions (Z ≈ 0.008) favoring formation over explosive remnants compared to solar-neighborhood analogs. Integration of 2020s models for low-metallicity Wolf-Rayet stars suggests that while BAT99-98 could theoretically produce a event, observational constraints from similar LMC systems indicate subdued explosion energies.

References

  1. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2014/05/aa22696-13/aa22696-13.html
  2. http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept19/Crowther/paper.pdf
  3. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/389/2/806/973686
  4. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978A&AS...34..383M/abstract
  5. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985A&A...153..235M/abstract
  6. https://aas.aanda.org/articles/aas/pdf/1999/10/ds1668.pdf
  7. https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dr3
  8. https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.01209
  9. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/1999/10/ds1668.pdf
  10. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-pdf/281/1/163/18505028/mnras281-0163.pdf
  11. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201322696
  12. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000A&A...360..227N/abstract
  13. https://science.nasa.gov/asset/hubble/swarm-of-glittering-stars-in-the-large-magellanic-cloud/
  14. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1911.02047
  15. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ac8424
  16. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2025/08/aa54758-25/aa54758-25.html
  17. https://massivestars.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Massive-Stars-Newsletter-February-2025.pdf
  18. https://noirlab.edu/public/news/noirlab2220/
  19. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2025/06/aa54421-25/aa54421-25.html
  20. https://www.iflscience.com/what-is-the-largest-star-ever-found-and-the-most-massive-76157
  21. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/792/1/44
  22. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/433/2/1114/1747843
  23. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/470/4/4739/3883764
  24. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2018/07/aa32773-18/aa32773-18.html
  25. https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.08042
  26. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/09/aa55467-25/aa55467-25.html
  27. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/06/aa17043-11/aa17043-11.html
  28. https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.15230
  29. https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.11785
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