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Beta Centauri
Beta Centauri
Beta Centauri
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β Centauri/Hadar
Location of β Centauri (circled)
Observation data
Epoch J2000      Equinox J2000
Constellation Centaurus
Right ascension 14h 03m 49.40535s[1]
Declination −60° 22′ 22.9266″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V) 0.61[2]
Characteristics
U−B color index −0.98[2]
B−V color index −0.23[2]
β Cen Aa
Spectral type B1 III[3]
Variable type β Cep/SPB[4]
β Cen Ab
Spectral type B1 III[3]
β Cen B
Spectral type B1V?[3]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)+9.59+0.23
−0.21[4] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: −33.27 mas/yr[1]
Dec.: −23.16 mas/yr[1]
Parallax (π)9.04±0.04 mas[4]
Distance361 ± 2 ly
(110.6 ± 0.5 pc)[4]
Absolute magnitude (MV)−4.9±0.2[5]
Orbit[4]
Primaryβ Cen Aa
Companionβ Cen Ab
Period (P)356.915±0.015 d
(0.97720±0.00004 yr)
Semi-major axis (a)0.02515+0.09
−0.08″
Eccentricity (e)0.8245±0.006
Inclination (i)67.68±0.12°
Longitude of the node (Ω)108.80+0.14
−0.15°
Periastron epoch (T)2452000.15202
Argument of periastron (ω)
(secondary)		60.87+0.26
−0.25°
Semi-amplitude (K1)
(primary)		62.9 km/s
Semi-amplitude (K2)
(secondary)		72.35 km/s
Orbit[6]
Primaryβ Cen A
Companionβ Cen B
Period (P)288.267 yr
Semi-major axis (a)0.870″
Details
β Cen Aa
Mass12.02±0.13[4] M☉
Radius9.16[note 1] R☉
Luminosity31,600+18,500
−11,700[5] L☉
Surface gravity (log g)3.55±0.11[5] cgs
Temperature25,000±2,000[5] K
Rotational velocity (v sin i)190±20[7] km/s
Age14.1±0.6[3] Myr
β Cen Ab
Mass10.58±0.18[4] M☉
Radius8.56[note 1] R☉
Luminosity25,100+14,700
−9,300[5] L☉
Surface gravity (log g)3.55±0.11[5] cgs
Temperature23,000±2,000[5] K
Rotational velocity (v sin i)75±15[7] km/s
Age14.1±0.6[3] Myr
β Cen B
Mass4.61[6] M☉
Age14.1±0.6[3] Myr
Other designations
Hadar, Agena, CD−59°5054, CPD−59°5365, FK5 518, GC 18971, HD 122451, HIP 68702, HR 5267, SAO 252582, CCDM J14038-6022, LHS 51[8]
Database references
SIMBADdata

Beta Centauri is a triple star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus. It is officially called Hadar (/ˈheɪdɑːr/). The Bayer designation of Beta Centauri is Latinised from β Centauri, and abbreviated Beta Cen or β Cen. The system's combined apparent visual magnitude of 0.61 makes it the second-brightest object in Centaurus and the eleventh brightest star in the night sky. According to dynamical parallax measurements, the distance to this system is about 361 light-years (111 parsecs).

Nomenclature

[edit]

β Centauri (Latinised to Beta Centauri) is the star system's Bayer designation.

It bore the traditional names Hadar and Agena. Hadar comes from the Arabic حضار (the root's meaning is "to be present" or "on the ground" or "settled, civilized area"[9]), while the name Agena /əˈdʒiːnə/ is thought to be derived from the Latin genua, meaning "knees", from the star's position on the left knee of the centaur depicted in the constellation Centaurus. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)[10] to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Hadar for the star β Centauri Aa on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.[11]

The Chinese name for the star is 马腹一 (Mandarin: mǎ fù yī, "the First Star of the Horse's Abdomen").[12]

The Boorong people indigenous to what is now northwestern Victoria, Australia named it Bermbermgle (together with α Centauri),[13] two brothers who were noted for their courage and destructiveness, and who spear and kill Tchingal, "The Emu" (Coalsack Nebula).[14] The Wotjobaluk people name the two brothers Bram-bram-bult.[13]

The Mursi people of Ethiopia call this star Waar; it forms an asterism with δ Crucis (Imai), β Crucis (Thaadoi), and α Centauri (Sholbi).[15]

Visibility

[edit]

Beta Centauri is one of the brightest stars in the sky at magnitude 0.61. Its brightness varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude, too small to be noticeable to the naked eye.[16] Because of its spectral type and the detection of pulsations, the Aa component has been classified as a β Cephei variable.[17]

Beta Centauri is well known in the Southern Hemisphere as the inner of the two "Pointers" to the constellation Crux, popularly known as the Southern Cross. A line made from the other pointer, Alpha Centauri, through Beta Centauri leads to within a few degrees of Gacrux, the star at the north end of the cross. Using Gacrux, a navigator can draw a line with Acrux at the south end to effectively determine south.[18]

Stellar system

[edit]

The Beta Centauri system is made up of three stars: Beta Centauri Aa, Beta Centauri Ab, and Beta Centauri B. All the spectral lines detected are consistent with a B1-type star, with only the line profiles varying, so it is thought that all three stars have the same spectral type.

In 1935, Joan Voûte identified Beta Centauri B, giving it the identifier VOU 31. The companion is separated from the primary by 1.3 seconds of arc, and has remained so since the discovery, although the position angle has changed six degrees since. Beta Centauri B is a B1 dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 4.

In 1967, Beta Centauri's observed variation in radial velocity suggested that Beta Centauri A is a binary star.[19][20] This was confirmed in 1999.[20] It consists of a pair of stars, β Centauri Aa and β Centauri Ab, of similar mass that orbit each other over a period of 357 days with a large eccentricity of about 0.8245.[4]

The pair were calculated to be separated by a mean distance of roughly 4 astronomical units (based on a distance to the system of 161 parsecs) in 2005.[21]

A light curve for Beta Centauri, plotted from TESS data.[22]

Both Aa and Ab apparently have a stellar classification of B1 III,[21] with the luminosity class of III indicating giant stars that are evolving away from the main sequence. Component Aa rotates much more rapidly than Ab, causing its spectral lines to be broader, and so the two components can be distinguished in the spectrum. Component Ab, the slow-rotating star, has a strong magnetic field although no detected abundance peculiarities in its spectrum. Multiple pulsations modes have been detected in component Aa, some of which correspond to brightness variations, so this star is considered to be variable. The detected pulsation modes correspond to those for both β Cephei variables and slowly pulsating B stars. Similar pulsations have not been detected in component Ab, but it is possible that it is also a variable star.[4]

Aa is 12.02 times as massive as the Sun, while Ab is 10.58 times as massive.[4] Their angular diameters are estimated at 0.77 and 0.72 milliarcseconds.[23] At the system's distance of 110.6±0.5 pc, this derive liner radii of 9.2 and 8.6 solar radii, respectively.[note 1]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Beta Centauri

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Beta Centauri, commonly known as Hadar, is a prominent triple star system located in the southern constellation Centaurus, approximately 390 light-years from Earth, and ranks as the eleventh-brightest star in the night sky with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.61. The system comprises a close spectroscopic binary pair of massive B1 III blue giant stars orbiting each other every 357 days at a separation of about 3 astronomical units, accompanied by a more distant fourth-magnitude companion star orbiting the pair with a period exceeding 250 years at a minimum separation of around 210 AU. The primary binary components, designated Beta Centauri Aa and Ab, are both β Cephei-type variable stars exhibiting short-period pulsations, with the more massive Aa having an estimated mass of about 12 solar masses and Ab around 10.5 solar masses; these hot, luminous stars have surface temperatures exceeding 22,000 K, emitting intense blue-white light and contributing to the system's overall spectral classification as B1 III. The third component, Beta Centauri B, is a less massive star of about 4.5 solar masses and spectral type B1V, visually separated from the primary pair by approximately 1.3 arcseconds. Positioned at 14h 03m 49s and -60° 22' 23" (J2000 ), Beta Centauri is visible primarily from the and plays a key navigational role as one of the "Southern Pointers," alongside Alpha Centauri, directing observers toward the Southern Cross asterism. In 2021, astronomers discovered a massive , b Centauri AB b, orbiting the binary pair at a vast distance of 556 AU with an of roughly 4,904 years; this has a mass of about 10.9 masses and a radius estimated at 1.11 times that of , marking it as one of the most distant and massive planets known around a multiple . The system's is -33.27 mas/year in and -23.16 mas/year in , with a of +2.52 km/s, indicating its motion relative to the Sun. Beta Centauri's intense luminosity—approximately 15,500 times that of the Sun—stems from the youth (about 14 million years old) and high mass of its primary stars, which are evolving rapidly and may eventually culminate in supernovae, though on timescales far beyond human observation.

Nomenclature and Etymology

Official Designation

Beta Centauri bears the Bayer designation β Centauri, which was assigned by the German astronomer in his 1603 star atlas Uranometria, where he systematically labeled the brighter stars in each constellation using Greek letters in order of decreasing apparent brightness followed by the genitive form of the constellation's Latin name. The (IAU) formally approved the proper name "Hadar" for β Centauri Aa on August 21, 2016, as part of its Working Group on Star Names efforts to standardize traditional names; this name derives from the "al-hadar," meaning "the ground" or "settled land," possibly alluding to the star's low position near the southern horizon from certain latitudes. In astronomical catalogs, the star is listed as HD 122451 in the Henry Draper Catalogue, which classifies stars by spectral type; as HR 5267 in the Harvard Revised Photometry Catalogue, an extension providing magnitudes and positions; and as HIP 68702 in the Catalogue, derived from the 1997 astrometric mission data. This Bayer system applies specifically to by appending the letters to "Centauri," ensuring unique identifiers for within the constellation while prioritizing visual magnitude for assignment.

Historical and Cultural Names

Beta Centauri has been known by various names across cultures, reflecting its prominent position in the southern sky and associations with mythology and celestial figures. In ancient Greek astronomy, as recorded by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE, the star marked the left knee of the centaur Chiron, leading to the Latin-derived name Agena, from genua meaning "knees," which emphasized its anatomical placement in the constellation Centaurus. Arabic astronomers in the medieval period contributed names like Hadar, derived from ḥaḍara meaning "to be present" or "settled ," possibly alluding to the star's low position near the horizon in northern skies; this term appeared in translations of Ptolemaic works and later star catalogs. In , Beta Centauri was designated as 马腹一 (Mǎ Fù yī), translating to "First Star of the Horse's Abdomen," as part of the ancient asterism representing the belly of a celestial horse in southern asterisms not visible from . Among Indigenous Australian cultures, the star held significance in storytelling and seasonal lore, often paired with Alpha Centauri as pointers. The Boorong people of northwestern Victoria referred to the pair as Bermbermgle, depicting two lost brothers or young men who became hunters in the sky, guiding seasonal emu hunts. Similarly, the Wotjobaluk people named them Bram-bram-bult, portraying the brothers as protectors who speared an spirit, with the stars serving as navigational aids for tracking animal migrations in Dreamtime narratives. In broader southern cultures, such as the of and , Beta Centauri formed part of Ütrüblükai, the "bolas" or throwing weapons in a hunter's footprint myth, used for orientation during travel across the . The approved Hadar as the official proper name for Beta Centauri in 2016, formalizing its primary historical designation.

Location and Observability

Celestial Coordinates

Beta Centauri occupies a precise position in the , with equatorial coordinates of 14ʰ 03ᵐ 49.⁴⁰⁵ and −60° 22′ 22.⁹³ for the J2000.0 epoch. These coordinates, derived from the revised astrometric catalog, define its location on the relative to Earth's equator and the vernal . In the , Beta Centauri lies at 311.767° and +1.251°, positioning it near the plane of the but slightly north of it by about 1.25°. This proximity to the situates the star amid denser stellar fields in the direction of the . Within the constellation , Beta Centauri marks the second-brightest star after Alpha Centauri and lies close to it, forming a prominent pair that highlights the centaur's form. The star resides firmly within the official boundaries of as established by the in 1930, which delineate the constellation across approximately 1,060 square degrees in the southern sky. The star exhibits a proper motion of −33.27 mas/yr in and −23.16 mas/yr in , indicating its gradual shift across the relative to more distant background stars, as measured by the mission's refined data. This motion reflects Beta Centauri's velocity through the galaxy, contributing to long-term changes in its apparent position over centuries.

Visibility and Seasonal Appearance

Beta Centauri possesses an apparent visual magnitude of 0.61, rendering it the 11th brightest star in the night and a prominent fixture for southern observers. This brightness ensures it stands out against the backdrop of the in the constellation , particularly during clear nights with minimal atmospheric interference. It exhibits slight variability in brightness due to pulsations, though this does not significantly affect its overall visibility. Positioned at a declination of approximately -60°, Beta Centauri is best visible from latitudes south of 30° N, where it clears the horizon sufficiently for observation. For viewers in the , especially south of 30° S, the star is circumpolar, remaining above the horizon throughout the year and circling the south without setting. In these regions, it appears high overhead during its seasonal culmination in May, when it reaches its highest elevation in the evening sky, offering optimal viewing conditions around midnight . Alongside Alpha Centauri, Beta Centauri forms one of the renowned "Southern Pointers," two brilliant stars whose alignment directs observers toward the distinctive cross shape of the nearby constellation . This navigational aid has long aided in locating the Southern Cross, enhancing its cultural and practical significance in southern skies. However, observers face substantial challenges, as the star only briefly skims the southern horizon from sites like southern , , or —typically visible for a short window in late spring or early summer—and urban light pollution often renders it undetectable even under these conditions.

Physical Characteristics

Apparent Brightness and Variability

Beta Centauri exhibits a combined apparent visual magnitude of 0.61, positioning it as the second-brightest star in and the eleventh brightest in the . This luminosity ensures high visibility to the from southern latitudes, where it appears as a prominent bluish point of light. The star displays small-amplitude photometric variations of approximately 0.003 magnitudes, characteristic of its classification as a β Cephei variable—a subtype of pulsating B-type giant. These pulsations arise from radial and non-radial oscillations in the stellar envelope, with multi-periodic behavior including dominant periods of 0.19, 0.24, and 0.32 days. Photometric observations from the satellite provided early confirmation of variability, detecting short-term fluctuations consistent with β Cephei-type pulsations, while data from the (TESS) have revealed finer details of the multi-periodic nature through high-cadence light curves spanning multiple sectors. These missions highlight the star's complex oscillation spectrum, with amplitudes typically below 1 mmag in the visual band. The spectral energy distribution of Beta Centauri peaks in the ultraviolet region, reflecting its high effective temperature as a hot early-type B star, which shifts the bulk of its emission to shorter wavelengths. For the primary components (Aa and Ab), the absolute visual magnitude is estimated at M_V ≈ -5.3, underscoring their intrinsic luminosity despite the moderate distance of approximately 111 parsecs.

Distance, Motion, and Age

Beta Centauri lies at a distance of 361 ± 2 light-years (111 ± 1 parsecs) from the Sun, as derived from its trigonometric measurement of 9.04 ± 0.05 milliarcseconds reported in Data Release 3. This places the system in the middle of the Sco-Cen OB association, a nearby complex of young stars formed from the same . The of the Beta Centauri system is +2.52 km/s relative to the Sun, signifying a slight recession from our solar system. Combined with its components of -33.27 mas/yr in and -23.16 mas/yr in , the system exhibits a modest tangential of approximately 21 km/s, yielding a total space of around 22 km/s relative to the Sun. These kinematics align with membership in the Upper –Lupus subgroup of the – association, where the stars share similar vectors tracing orbits within the galactic disk at roughly 8 kpc from the , with low eccentricity and minimal vertical excursions on the order of tens of parsecs. Isochrone fitting to the evolutionary tracks of its massive B-type primary components indicates an age of 14.1 ± 0.6 million years for Beta Centauri, consistent with the formation timescale of the Scorpius–Centaurus association. This youth contrasts sharply with the Sun's age of 4.6 billion years, underscoring Beta Centauri's status as a relatively newborn still in its early main-sequence phase.

The Stellar System

System Components

Beta Centauri is a triple star system comprising two closely orbiting massive stars, designated β Cen Aa and Ab, and a more distant companion, β Cen B. The primary star, β Cen Aa, is classified as a B1 III star with a mass of 12.02 ± 0.13 , a radius of 9.16 R⊙, and an of 25,000 K. It exhibits a of approximately 26,200 L⊙ and rapid with a projected equatorial v sin i ≈ 250 km/s. As a main-sequence star, β Cen Aa is coeval with its companion at an age of about 10–15 million years. The secondary star in the close binary, β Cen Ab, is also a B1 III star, possessing a mass of 10.58 ± 0.18 , a radius of 8.56 R⊙, and an of 23,000 K. Its luminosity is about 17,600 , and like its companion, it is a main-sequence . The pair contributes the majority of the system's total luminosity of roughly 41,700 , enhancing its overall visibility from . The third component, β Cen B, is a B1 V main-sequence dwarf with a of 4.61 M⊙ and an of +4.0. It represents a younger evolutionary stage compared to the stars in the inner binary. The system displays near-solar , with Z = 0.0134.

Orbital Dynamics

The Beta Centauri system features a hierarchical configuration, with an inner binary consisting of components Aa and Ab that exhibit a highly eccentric . The of this inner pair is 357.03 days, with an eccentricity of 0.8245, resulting in a semi-major axis of approximately 4 AU and a minimum separation at periastron of 0.7 AU. These parameters were derived from combined visual and spectroscopic observations, including long-baseline that resolved the close pair. The high eccentricity implies significant variation in separation over the , leading to potential episodes of enhanced tidal interactions or photometric variability during periastron passages, though the system's inclination prevents full eclipses. The outer component B orbits the inner binary Aa-Ab on a much wider path, with an of at least 250 years and a current angular separation of approximately 1.3 arcseconds, corresponding to a projected semi-major axis of around 216 AU. These elements for the outer orbit have been estimated through visual and astrometric observations. The substantial separation ensures long-term dynamical stability, as the gravitational influence of B on the inner binary remains weak, minimizing perturbations that could destabilize the close pair over the system's age. Masses for the components, obtained from fitting the inner with spectroscopic velocities, are approximately 12 M⊙ for Aa and 10.6 M⊙ for Ab, consistent with their early B-type classifications and the Keplerian dynamics. This configuration highlights Beta Centauri's role as a benchmark for studying massive in multiple systems, where the eccentric inner may drive future observable changes in pulsation modes or signatures.

Astronomical Importance

Role in Navigation

Beta Centauri, also known as Hadar, functions as the inner of the two prominent Southern Pointer stars, paired with Alpha Centauri (Rigil Kentaurus). An imaginary line drawn from Alpha Centauri through Beta Centauri and extended roughly four and a half times the separation between them points directly to the top star of the Southern Cross () constellation, enabling observers in the to reliably identify south without instruments. This method has been a cornerstone of orientation for centuries, leveraging the stars' brightness—Beta Centauri shines at an of 0.61, making it visible even under moderate . Historically, Beta Centauri played a key role in Polynesian across the Pacific Ocean, where it was known as Kamailemua ("the first maile vine") in Hawaiian traditions. Polynesian navigators incorporated it into their star compass system, using its position relative to other stars to maintain bearings during extended voyages that spanned thousands of kilometers, often without land in sight. Similarly, in some Australian Aboriginal cultures, such as those of the Bandjin of , the Southern Pointers represent two boys in a canoe towed by a shovelnose ray, identified with the Southern Cross, guiding coastal and inland travel orientations. These indigenous practices highlight its enduring utility in sea and land voyages long before European exploration. In formal , Beta Centauri is one of the 57 selected navigational stars cataloged in the , published jointly by the U.S. Naval Observatory and the Hydrographic Office, for determining position in the . Navigators measure its altitude with a to compute , particularly useful when the Southern Cross is overhead to establish true south. This inclusion ensures its availability in standard tables for mariners relying on stellar sights. Contemporary applications extend Beta Centauri's role to and . In aviation training programs, it features in celestial backup navigation curricula for pilots operating in GPS-denied environments, reinforcing traditional methods for southern routes. In , star trackers—autonomous optical sensors—reference Beta Centauri within their onboard catalogs of bright stars to maintain precise attitude control and orientation during missions, as seen in systems like those on Hubble and modern satellites.

Scientific Studies and Observations

The multiplicity of Beta Centauri was first indicated through visual observations in the early , with Dutch Joan Voûte resolving the system into a in 1935 using techniques at the Johannesburg Observatory, identifying the fainter B component at a separation of 1.3 arcseconds. The close binary nature of the primary component (Beta Centauri Aa,Ab) was suspected in 1967 based on periodic variations observed by Breger, suggesting an of approximately 357 days, and later confirmed as a double-lined binary through high-resolution and in 1999. The β Cephei-type variability of Beta Centauri was identified in the 1960s, with Breger's 1967 spectroscopic study detecting short-period pulsations of 3 to 3.5 hours superimposed on longer-term changes, marking it as one of the earliest recognized pulsating B-type stars in a . Subsequent analyses revealed multi-periodic modes; Ausseloos et al. (2006) used high-resolution spectral time series to dissect line-profile variations, identifying multiple oscillation frequencies and confirming pulsational activity in both binary components. Building on this, Pigulski et al. (2016) employed BRITE-Constellation satellite photometry to resolve over 30 independent pulsation modes, including (p-) and (g-) modes, providing detailed frequency spectra for the massive B1 II/III primary and its companion. Gaia Data Release 3 (DR3), released in 2022, significantly refined the system's , yielding a precise of 8.27 ± 0.04 mas (corresponding to a of about 121 pc or 395 light-years) and improved data that supported updated orbital solutions for the hierarchical triple configuration. These measurements enhanced constraints on the system's age and evolutionary status by reducing uncertainties from prior values. Asteroseismology of Beta Centauri's pulsations has yielded key insights into its internal structure, revealing rapid rotation rates (up to 250 km/s) in the core, overshooting convective zones, and chemical mixing profiles consistent with massive B-star evolution models; the detected modes probe depths from the to near the convective , enabling tests of opacity and mixing theories.

References

  1. http://simbad.cds.unistra.fr/simbad/sim-basic?Ident=Beta+Centauri
  2. https://earthsky.org/brightest-stars/beta-centauri-hadar-southern-pointer-star/
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  4. https://www.star-facts.com/hadar/
  5. https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/b-centauri-ab-b/
  6. https://osr.org/blog/astronomy/beta-centauri/
  7. https://web.pa.msu.edu/people/horvatin/Astronomy_Facts/brightest_stars.html
  8. https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/naming_stars/
  9. http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-basic?Ident=Beta+Cen
  10. http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/centaurus.html
  11. https://www.universetoday.com/articles/centaurus
  12. https://www.astronomytrek.com/stars/hadar/
  13. https://www.eso.org/public/blog/navigating-the-stars/
  14. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/41/aa8357-07.pdf
  15. https://astropixels.com/southernsky/atacama2018/Cen18-01.html
  16. https://www.si.edu/object/exploring-ellie-surveying-skies-over-peru%253Aposts_67379e7033a83b1e90027622e7737e42
  17. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/04/aa27872-15/aa27872-15.html
  18. https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.03917
  19. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/356/4/1362/1012554
  20. https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dr3
  21. https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.02806
  22. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2002/10/aah3391/aah3391.html
  23. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2016/04/aa27872-15.pdf
  24. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-pdf/356/4/1362/18462595/356-1362.pdf
  25. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A&A...384..209A/abstract
  26. https://www.constellation-guide.com/the-southern-cross/
  27. https://starlab.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/D.-26.-Polynesian-Astronomy-v616.pdf
  28. https://www.manoaheritagecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Hawaiian-Star-Lines-and-Names-for-Stars.pdf
  29. http://www.aboriginalastronomy.com.au/content/topics/stars/
  30. https://bushguide101.com/finding-true-south-in-the-southern-hemisphere/
  31. https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2019/it_2.html
  32. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2002/10/aah3391.pdf
  33. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2006/31/aa4829-06.pdf
  34. https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2023/06/aa43688-22/aa43688-22.html
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