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Bosten Lake
Bosten Lake
Bosten Lake
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Bosten Lake (traditional Chinese: 博斯騰湖; simplified Chinese: 博斯腾湖; pinyin: Bósīténg Hú, Uyghur: باغراش كۆلى / Бағраш Көли / Baghrash Köli / Baƣrax Kɵli, Chagatai: Bostang) is a freshwater lake on the northeastern rim of the Tarim Basin, about 20 km (12 mi) east of Yanqi and 57 km (35 mi) northeast of Korla, Xinjiang, China in the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture. Covering an area of about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) (together with adjacent small lakes), it is the largest lake in Xinjiang and one of the largest inland freshwater lakes in China.[1] Bosten lake receives water inflow from a catchment area of 56,000 km2 (22,000 sq mi).[2]

Key Information

The lake's Mongol, Uyghur and Chinese names are sometimes rendered as Bosten Hu, Bagrax-hu, Bagrasch-köl, Baghrasch köl, Bagratsch-kul, Bositeng Lake or Bositeng Hu.

The Kaidu River is the most important tributary to Lake Bosten, accounting for about 83% of its water inflow,[1] other significant tributaries are the Huangshui Ditch (Chinese: 黃水溝), the Qingshui River (清水河), and Wulasite River (烏拉司特河).[3] Lake Bosten's primarily outflow is to the southwest, also via the Kaidu River under the name Kongque River (Chinese: 孔雀河; pinyin: Kǒngquè Hé), which literally means "Peacock River".

An active fishery exists on the lake. Until the early 1970s, two cyprinid species, Schizothorax biddulphi and Aspiorhynchus laticeps, the latter of which is endemic to Bosten Lake and the Yarkand River, were responsible for 80 percent of the annual catch.[4] During the years 1962 to 1965, various carp species (bighead, black, silver, grass, common, and crucian carp) were introduced into the lake.[4] In the 1970s, these species become major targets of the fishing activities.[4] Since 1978, the introduced European perch has been the dominating species in the catches from Bosten Lake.[4]

References

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Bosten Lake

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Bosten Lake (Chinese: 博斯腾湖; Bósīténg Hú), situated in the Yanqi Basin at the southern piedmont of the Tianshan Mountains in , northwest (41°56′–42°14′N, 86°40′–87°26′E), is the largest lake in and one of the largest inland freshwater lakes in . Covering an average surface area of approximately 1,000 km², with a mean depth of 8.2 meters and a maximum depth of 17 meters, the lake spans about 55 km in length and 25 km in width, and holds a water volume of around 7.22 km³. Its primary inflow is the River, which contributes about 95% of the from the central Tianshan Mountains, supplemented by minor rivers like Huangshuigou, Qingshui, and Ushatara via the Kongque River, while its primary outflow is via the Kongque River to the Tarim River basin, with natural drainage historically via the Konqi River toward Lop Nor. The lake's hydrology is influenced by the arid regional climate, characterized by an annual mean temperature of about 8.5°C, precipitation of roughly 84 mm, and evaporation exceeding 2,000 mm, leading to significant historical fluctuations in water levels driven by glacier meltwater variations and temperature changes over the past 2,000 years. In recent decades, from 2003 to 2022, the lake has experienced a slight decline, with its area shrinking from 1,037.9 km² to 1,015.77 km², water level dropping by 0.58 meters, and volume decreasing by 1.07 km³, primarily due to human activities such as agricultural expansion and ecological water transfers, despite increased runoff from the Kaidu River. Ecologically, Bosten Lake supports vital biodiversity, irrigation for the local economy, and serves as a key node in the Ecological Water Conveyance Project, which diverts water to the downstream Tarim River basin to combat desertification and sustain riparian ecosystems. Its water quality has faced challenges, including rising salinity (total dissolved solids increasing from 0.6 g/L in 1960 to 1.87 g/L by 1987), attributed to climate variability and anthropogenic pressures; subsequent water diversion efforts have reduced salinity, with TDS around 1.32 g/L as of 2018, aiding restoration. Subsequent water diversion efforts have reduced salinity, with TDS around 1.32 g/L as of 2018, aiding restoration. This underscores its sensitivity as a closed-basin lake in an extremely arid environment.

Geography

Location

Bosten Lake is situated at approximately 42°00′N 87°00′E in the of northwest . It lies within the , specifically in Bohu County, and is positioned about 20 km east of Yanqi County and 57 km northeast of Korla City. This placement situates the lake in a strategically important area of the region, serving as a key geographical feature in the arid landscapes of . The lake occupies the southeastern portion of the Yanqi Basin, on the southern flank of the mountains, and forms part of the northeastern rim of the broader . It is bordered to the north by the rugged terrain of the range and to the south and west by expansive expanses, creating a distinct enclosure amid contrasting arid and mountainous environments. The catchment area of Bosten Lake encompasses roughly 56,000 km², primarily within the Yanqi Basin, which drains from the surrounding mountainous and desert terrains into the lake. This extensive basin highlights the lake's role as a central hydrological collector in an otherwise dry region.

Physical characteristics

Bosten Lake, situated in the Yanqi Basin of , is a tectonic basin lake formed within a structural depression associated with regional dynamics. This geological setting contributes to its shallow morphology and irregular shoreline, distinguishing it from deeper rift lakes elsewhere. The lake's basin is part of the broader system, where tectonic has created a low-lying depression conducive to sediment accumulation and water retention. The lake covers a surface area of approximately 1,000 km², though this varies seasonally due to fluctuations in water levels influenced by precipitation and evaporation patterns. Its dimensions include a maximum length of 55 km oriented east-west and a maximum width of 25 km north-south, giving it an elongated shape that reflects the underlying tectonic alignment. At an of 1,048 m above , Bosten Lake serves as the largest inland freshwater body in by surface area. In terms of depth profile, the lake is notably shallow, with an average depth of 8.2 m and a maximum depth of 17 m, resulting in a multi-year average total water volume of 7.22 km³. This shallow character enhances its sensitivity to external inputs, while parts of the lake exhibit a mix of brackish and freshwater conditions due to varying levels exceeding 1 g/L in certain areas.

Hydrology

Bosten Lake receives its primary inflow from the River, which contributes approximately 95% of the total water input to the lake, originating from glacial melt and precipitation in the mountains. Secondary inflows include the Huangshui Ditch (also known as Huangshuigou River), Qingshui River, and Wulasite River (also referred to as Ushatara River), collectively accounting for the remaining ~5% of surface runoff. The lake's sole outflow occurs through the Kongque River (Peacock River), which drains westward into the and supports downstream oases such as those in , eventually flowing southward toward Lop Nor. This outflow has been augmented since 1983 by artificial pumping stations, with average annual volumes ranging from 1.15 km³ (1961–1987) to 1.83 km³ (2003–2015). The lake is situated in an but functions as an open lake with outflow, where significantly exceeds , leading to a net water loss that is partially offset by inflows. Annual lake averages around 70–91 mm, while reaches 841–2000 mm, resulting in a equation that incorporates runoff, melt, and exchanges to maintain lake volume. levels remain typically low, classifying the lake as freshwater with (TDS) around 0.6 g/L under normal conditions, though they rise during dry periods—reaching up to 1.87 g/L—due to concentrated and reduced dilution from inflows. Historically, water levels in Bosten Lake declined sharply from the to the at a rate of -0.083 m/year, primarily due to upstream diversions for that reduced inflows. Levels recovered in the , with increases of up to 0.575 m/year in some periods (e.g., 2013–2016), attributed to enhanced meltwater contributions from the amid climatic shifts. Following this recovery, the lake experienced an overall slight decline from 2003 to 2022, with its area shrinking from 1,037.9 km² to 1,015.77 km², water level dropping by 0.58 meters, and volume decreasing by 1.07 km³, primarily due to human activities such as agricultural expansion and ecological water transfers, despite increased runoff from the Kaidu River (as of 2022). From 2013 to 2020, volume increased by 2.473 km³, but decreased by 1.175 km³ from 2020 to 2022.

Climate

Regional climate

The Bosten Lake region features a desert climate classified as Köppen BWk, characterized by arid conditions with low annual levels averaging around 50%. This classification reflects the area's extreme , where significantly exceeds , and temperatures exhibit pronounced continental variability due to its inland location in northwest China's Uyghur Autonomous Region. Annual average temperatures in the basin range from 8.2°C to 11.5°C, with hot summers reaching highs of up to 35°C in and cold winters dropping to lows of -20°C in January. These extremes underscore the region's sharp seasonal contrasts, influenced by its position far from moderating oceanic influences. is scarce, with an annual average of 50–70 mm, predominantly occurring during the summer months from May to September, while springs remain notably dry. This limited and seasonal rainfall contributes to the overall arid environment, with evaporation rates often exceeding 2,000 mm annually. Spring conditions are marked by strong northwest winds, often exceeding 8 m/s, which frequently generate dust storms due to the dry, loose soils in the surrounding basin. These wind patterns, driven by westerly flows across , intensify aridity and visibility issues during to May.

Climatic influences

The climatic regime of the Bosten Lake basin is characterized by high rates exceeding 1,880 mm annually, which significantly outpaces the low regional of approximately 70 mm per year, leading to a persistent negative that concentrates salts and causes lake level drops during dry years. This dominance exacerbates increases, with historical records showing elevated salt concentrations during periods of reduced inflows, thereby threatening the lake's environmental stability as a terminal inland body. Precipitation variability plays a critical role in modulating lake inflows, particularly during prolonged dry spells; for instance, since around 1900 AD, the region has experienced warm and dry conditions that have contributed to declining water levels and reduced lake extent due to diminished river runoff. These droughts limit freshwater inputs from the Kaidu River, amplifying the effects of evaporation and leading to contractions in lake surface area, as observed in multi-decadal fluctuations where low-precipitation phases correlate with heightened salinity and shallower depths. In recent decades, warming trends since the late 1980s have driven increased meltwater contributions from glaciers, elevating Kaidu River runoff and resulting in substantial lake level rises, with water depths increasing at rates of up to 23 cm per year from 1987 to 2002 and peaking at 1,048.7 m above . However, future projections under continued indicate potential declines in lake levels due to reduced and further alterations in melt dynamics, which could diminish overall inflows and exacerbate issues despite short-term gains from warming. Holocene sediment records reveal evidence of wetter climatic phases that supported higher lake levels between approximately 4,300 and 1,900 calibrated years (cal. yr ), including intervals around 4,300–3,850 cal. yr and 3,150–1,900 cal. yr , when enhanced moisture from strengthened westerly winds promoted deeper water conditions and fluctuating salinities indicative of greater hydrological stability. These periods contrast with intervening dry intervals, such as 2,650–2,500 cal. yr , where reduced led to lower lake stands, underscoring the long-term sensitivity of Bosten Lake's to regional patterns. These climatic influences have been further amplified by human activities like , which intensify water losses during dry phases.

Ecology

Flora and vegetation

The flora around Bosten Lake is adapted to the arid continental climate and fluctuating hydrological conditions of the basin, featuring wetland, riparian, and desert-transition communities that thrive in saline and variable moisture environments. Wetland vegetation dominates the shorelines and shallow areas, primarily consisting of reed beds formed by Phragmites australis and cattails such as Typha angustata and Typha angustifolia, which form dense associations in marshy zones with stable water availability. These species, along with sedges, create extensive emergent stands that stabilize sediments and support nutrient cycling in the lake's littoral zones. Riparian zones along inflows like the Kongque River support tree and shrub communities resilient to water level fluctuations, including poplars () and willows (Salix matsudana) intermixed with tamarisk (). These species exhibit deep root systems and salt tolerance, enabling persistence in periodically inundated or drought-stressed habitats. In transitional areas toward the desert margins, sparse halophytic vegetation prevails, dominated by tamarisk () and members of the Chenopodiaceae family, such as spp. and saltbush-like species, which colonize saline soils with low water content. Overall vegetation cover in the basin remains limited, estimated at around 20–30% due to , with herbaceous and shrubby forms comprising the majority. Vegetation dynamics in the Bosten Lake basin have varied with hydro-climatic shifts, showing expansion during wetter periods and degradation during . From 2000 to 2020, (NDVI) values increased across approximately 7.7% of vegetated areas, particularly near the lake and western inflows, driven by rising and declining that favored growth of reeds and riparian species. Conversely, about 9% of areas experienced degradation, linked to dry phases with reduced water levels and heightened evaporation, leading to dieback in sensitive and halophytic communities. These changes underscore the vegetation's sensitivity to lags and temperature influences, with post-2008 wetter conditions promoting recovery in plant diversity and cover.

Fauna and biodiversity

Bosten Lake supports a diverse array of aquatic and semi-aquatic , though its has been significantly altered by historical introductions of non-native species. The lake originally harbored four native species: Aspiorhynchus laticeps, Hedinichthys yarkantensis, Leuciscus leuciscus baicalensis, and Schizothorax biddulphi. H. yarkantensis and L. l. baicalensis are presumed extinct or no longer observed in recent surveys. A. laticeps—an endemic species restricted to Bosten Lake and the adjacent —was previously considered disappeared but populations have been recovering through restocking efforts since 2020, including releases of over 40,000 individuals. S. biddulphi remains critically endangered and rarely observed due to competition and changes. To bolster fishery production, multiple non-native fish were introduced starting in the , with numerous species introduced historically, contributing to over 38 introductions, though recent surveys indicate around 13-15 non-native species currently inhabiting the lake. Between 1962 and 1965, species including common carp (Cyprinus carpio), (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), (Aristichthys nobilis), (Mylopharyngodon piceus), (Ctenopharyngodon idella), and (Carassius auratus) were stocked. Further introductions from 1968 to 1971 included (Perca fluviatilis), along with roach (Rutilus rutilus) and (Tinca tinca). Additional non-native introductions, such as Japanese smelt (Hypomesus nipponensis) and sharpbelly (Hemiculter leucisculus) in later decades, have further impacted native . Originally dominant, the has been surpassed by such as Japanese smelt and sharpbelly, which now comprise over 60% of the fish production as of 2023. The lake's surrounding wetlands serve as biodiversity hotspots, particularly for avian species, hosting 198 bird species and functioning as a key stopover along the Central Asian for migratory waterfowl. Extensive reedbeds and marshes provide essential breeding and staging grounds, supporting migratory populations such as whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus) and red-billed gulls (Larus reconditus). These habitats attract tens of thousands of birds annually during migration seasons, underscoring the lake's role in regional avian conservation. Beyond vertebrates, the includes amphibians and adapted to its brackish-freshwater interface, though specific diversity metrics remain understudied. Microbial communities, particularly , exhibit notable vulnerability to climatic warming, with elevated temperatures reducing overall bacterial diversity and stability, including in nitrogen-cycling groups. This decline disrupts ecological dynamics and highlights the sensitivity of the lake's microbial to environmental shifts.

History

Geological formation

Bosten Lake occupies the Yanqi Basin, an intermontane depression in formed during the era through tectonic uplift of the mountains and associated basin driven by the India-Eurasia collision. The basin represents a fault-controlled structure linked to the broader , where reactivation of inherited faults and thrusting along margins, such as the Mazatagh Thrust, accommodated crustal shortening and . Alluvial deposits from the Kaidu River, the primary inflow, dominate the basin's infill, consisting of coarse clastics and finer sediments that reflect ongoing tectonic and fluvial influences in this arid inland setting. A 51.6-m-deep core indicates that the lake formed at least 220,000 years ago based on , revealing long-term evolution in the subsiding basin. A 9.24 m sediment core (XBWu46) recovered from the River delta margin spans the interval of approximately 8,600 calibrated years (cal. yr BP), recording initial lacustrine deposition amid post-glacial climatic transitions. This core reveals fluctuations in through geochemical proxies like , carbonate content, Sr/Ca ratios, and ostracod assemblages, indicating the lake's establishment. Pollen analysis and grain-size distributions from complementary cores further proxy a wetter early environment, with finer sediments and higher arboreal percentages suggesting increased effective moisture and vegetation cover around the basin. The lake's long-term evolution involved phases of expansion and contraction tied to regional climate variability within the tectonically stable basin framework. During the mid- climatic optimum (approximately 7,250–5,170 cal. yr ), the lake expanded to its maximum extent and depth, with low-salinity conditions inferred from ostracod assemblages and carbonate proxies, reflecting enhanced precipitation from strengthened westerly winds. Contraction occurred in the late under increasing aridity (post-5,170 cal. yr ), marked by coarser grain sizes, elevated salinity stages (e.g., 5,170–4,370 and 2,170–1,250 cal. yr ), and reduced water levels, as pollen records shift toward xerophytic taxa indicative of drier conditions. These changes highlight the interplay of tectonic inheritance and hydroclimatic forcing in shaping the lake's development.

Human settlement and development

Human settlement around Bosten Lake dates back to the Early , approximately 4,000 years before present, when favorable climatic conditions supported early communities along the lake's shoreline in the transitional zone between the basin depression and surrounding piedmonts, associated with cultures such as Xintala. These early inhabitants likely relied on the lake's resources for subsistence, marking the onset of sustained human presence in the arid region. By the historical era, the lake's surrounding oases, such as (modern Yanqi), became vital nodes on the ancient , facilitating trade between East and West while enabling irrigation-based agriculture that sustained caravan routes and local populations. In the mid-20th century, modern development intensified human interactions with the lake, beginning with large-scale water diversions in the 1950s to support agricultural expansion in the Yanqi Basin, particularly for cotton farming, which required extensive in the arid landscape. This period saw the construction of infrastructure on the River, the lake's primary inflow source, including early reservoirs and later dams such as the Dashankou hydropower station completed in 1987, which collectively reduced river inflows to Bosten Lake by capturing water for upstream use during the 1960s to 1980s. These interventions, driven by national agricultural policies, transformed the basin into a productive oasis but significantly altered the lake's . The fishery of Bosten Lake has evolved from traditional native practices to a modern industry shaped by species introductions. Prior to the , local communities engaged in artisanal fishing targeting indigenous species like the naked carp (Gymnocypris przewalskii) from the Schizothoracinae subfamily, using simple gear for subsistence. Large-scale commenced in 1958, but the introduction of exotic economic species from the River basin—such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), (Ctenopharyngodon idella), and (Perca fluviatilis)—in the late 1960s and early 1970s revolutionized the sector, with perch eventually dominating catches and boosting annual yields to around 2,000 tons by promoting over native fisheries. Population growth in surrounding settlements, exemplified by Yanqi and adjacent counties, accelerated alongside agricultural development, leading to a 50% reduction in river inflows to Bosten Lake by the due to expanded farmland from to higher peaks, which diverted substantial volumes for and urban needs. This demographic and , with regional GDP rising from 5.6 × 10⁶ CNY in 1949 to 3.8 × 10⁸ CNY by 2004, underscored the lake's role as a critical source but strained its amid intensifying human demands.

Significance and management

Economic and cultural role

Bosten Lake serves as a vital economic hub in the arid region, primarily through its robust sector, which is the largest in the province and produces over 4,000 tons of aquatic products annually, including , , and freshwater crabs. This output supports local livelihoods, with fishermen earning significant income during peak seasons, such as over 1,000 yuan per day from carp hauls, and contributes to rural revitalization by supplying markets across . The lake's outflows also provide essential irrigation water for farmland in the Yanqi Basin and downstream areas, sustaining agricultural production across roughly 200,000 hectares of cropland in the irrigated districts. Culturally, Bosten Lake holds deep significance for Uyghur communities, with its name "Bosten" deriving from the Uyghur word for "oasis," symbolizing a life-sustaining haven amid the surrounding landscape of . Traditional practices, including centuries-old techniques passed down through generations, form the backbone of local communities around the lake, fostering a tied to its rhythms and bounty. As an ecological emblem in the region, the lake represents resilience and harmony between humans and nature, often featured in Uyghur as a provider of abundance in an otherwise harsh environment. Tourism has emerged as a growing economic driver, with the lake's status as a national wetland park drawing visitors for eco-tourism activities like , where over 190 species, including migratory whooper swans, can be observed against the striking desert-lake backdrop. In 2023, the scenic area attracted 2.8 million tourists from January to July, generating 1.31 billion yuan in revenue and indirectly supporting the livelihoods of around 1.2 million people in the basin through related services and employment. continues to grow, with the scenic spots drawing visitors during the 2025 Spring Festival holidays. Beyond direct uses, the lake plays a broader role in regional as a key water source for the Tarim River oases, channeling vital flows to downstream ecosystems and in arid northwest . Its basin wetlands, covering over 40,000 hectares, act as a significant , with high sequestration potential that bolsters regulation in the area. The diverse aquatic further underpins the by maintaining productive fish stocks.

Environmental challenges and conservation

Bosten Lake faces significant fluctuations attributable to anthropogenic water diversions for upstream and , compounded by rising temperatures from warming that enhance rates. During the , excessive diversions led to a sharp decline, with the lake reaching a minimum level of 1044.73 m above in 1987, severely stressing the . By the , levels had partially recovered to approximately 1045 m due to policy interventions, though ongoing warming continues to pose risks to stability. Sediment pollution from , particularly () and lead (Pb), stems largely from agricultural runoff including fertilizers and pesticides applied in surrounding farmlands. Concentrations average 0.18 mg/kg for and 34.61 mg/kg for Pb, exceeding local background values (0.12 mg/kg for and 19.4 mg/kg for Pb), yet overall ecological risk remains low to moderate with contributing the highest potential hazard. levels have fluctuated, rising to 1.48 g/L by 2008 amid water stress but subsequently declining through improved inflows, alleviating some pressures on aquatic life. Key threats to biodiversity encompass habitat shrinkage from prolonged low water levels, which disrupts wetland and shoreline ecosystems vital for fish and bird species, alongside degradation from pollution and overexploitation that has historically reduced species diversity and altered food webs. Climate-driven projections indicate potential further habitat contraction in the basin by 2050 under continued warming and land use shifts, exacerbating biodiversity vulnerabilities. Conservation initiatives since 2000 emphasize sustainable water allocation policies that prioritize ecological flows alongside agricultural demands, including the of pumping infrastructure in the 1980s and subsequent regulations to curb diversions. restoration projects have focused on rehabilitating aquatic vegetation along the lakeshore, resulting in expanded areas from 909 km² in 2014 to 1140 km² in 2020 and improved metrics such as reduced and levels. Satellite-based monitoring, utilizing Landsat imagery and Engine platforms, tracks changes, dynamics, and level variations to inform strategies.

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