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An Old Whaler Hove Down For Repairs, Near New Bedford, a wood engraving drawn by F. S. Cozzens and published in Harper's Weekly, December 1882

Careening (also known as "heaving down") is a method of gaining access to the hull of a sailing vessel without the use of a dry dock. It is used for cleaning or repairing the hull. Before ship's hulls were protected from marine growth by fastening copper sheets over the surface of the hull, fouling by this growth would seriously affect the sailing qualities of a ship, causing a large amount of drag.[1]: 164  As this growth was underwater, removing it was difficult. Beaching the vessel at high tide allowed the lower hull to be exposed for cleaning or repairs.

Etymology

[edit]

The term, and similar terms in French, Spanish and Italian, derive from the term for a ship's keel—carène (French), carena (Spanish), carena (Italian). These come from the Latin term for keel, carīna.[2]

Practice

[edit]

The ship was grounded broadside on a steep beach at high tide or, in dockyards, moored at a permanent facility for careening known as a careening wharf.[3] A beach favoured for careening was called a careenage.

The vessel was then pulled over with tackles from the mastheads to strong points on the shore while the tide went out. If this was being done on a beach, then the ship's guns might be moved to the shore and used as anchoring points.[4] However, a careening wharf in a dockyard was preferred, as it would have been equipped with the capstans and rope tackle necessary for hauling over the ship. If a dockyard was not available—for example, the ship was a pirate ship or in need of repairs while in hostile waters—a beach would have to do. The ship would have been lightened beforehand by removing all stores, and a careening wharf would have had large sheds available to protect them from weather and theft.[4] With one side of the ship raised out of the water, maintenance work would be carried out. When the tide returned, the ship would be floated off and the process repeated if necessary on the other side.[5]

HMS Formidable careened in Malta Dockyard, 31 January 1843
A diagram of careening, from the Lärobok i sjömanskap (Textbook of Seamanship) by Wilhelm Linder, 1896

While a competent crew could careen their ship without outside assistance,[4] it was a laborious task.[6] In early 1843, HMS Formidable was careened at Malta Dockyard to carry out repairs after the ship had grounded a few weeks earlier. An account of the work done notes that every movable item on the ship had to be taken off. Additional structural reinforcements had to be installed in the hull and all the masts and rigging removed except for the lowest parts. The lower gun ports were sealed, reinforced and made watertight. Also a large number of thick, timber outriggers were installed; these were up to two feet (61 cm) across and 40 feet (12 m) long. The ship was pulled over by ropes wound around three capstans; each was turned by 120 men.[7]

In the 18th century, careening wharves existed at overseas Royal Navy dockyards such as Port Mahon and Halifax. They were important facilities and often the first things built when the navy was establishing a new overseas base.[4] However, dockyards in the United Kingdom typically had dry docks.[3] Careening placed a hull under a considerable strain and even a strongly built ship could be structurally weakened or damaged by the procedure. Using a dry dock was preferred if one was available.[6]

At the end of the 18th century, the Royal Navy had 24 dry docks available in Britain, so careening was not usually necessary for ships stationed in British waters. This gave an advantage over their French rivals, as France had few dry docks, and the French Navy had to routinely careen its ships for maintenance.[6]

Pirates would often careen their ships because they had no access to dry docks. A secluded bay would suffice for necessary repairs or hull cleaning, and such little "safe havens" could be found throughout the islands in the Caribbean and nearly around the world. One group of islands, Las Tres Marías, off the coast of Mexico, became a haven for pirates after Charles Swan careened his ships there in 1686, followed by another group of buccaneers who sought refuge in the islands later in the same year.[8]

Parliamentary heel

[edit]

A practice similar to careening was a Parliamentary heel, in which the vessel was heeled over in deep water by shifting weight, such as ballast or guns, to one side. In this way the upper sides could be cleaned or repaired with minimal delay. Famously, HMS Royal George sank at Spithead off Portsmouth while undergoing a Parliamentary heel in 1782, killing hundreds of people on board.[5]

Modern practice

[edit]

Careening in the traditional sense can only be done on a sailing vessel as its masts are used for hauling it over. Today, larger ships are placed in dry dock;[5] smaller vessels can be lifted from the water by a crane or a travel lift.

A procedure known as careening is still sometimes done with smaller boats, but differs from what was done historically in that the boat is not winched over by cables attached to the mast. The boat is simply moored at a location where it will be grounded and its hull exposed at low tide. For a few hours, it is possible to carry out inspection or maintenance before the rising tide refloats the boat.[9][10]

Further reading

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See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Careening

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Careening is the nautical practice of deliberately tilting or heaving a vessel onto one side, typically using ropes, capstans, and the assistance of or shores, to expose the submerged portion of its hull for , , repair, or application of protective coatings. This method, also known as "heaving down," was essential during the Age of Sail for removing marine growth such as and , caulking seams to prevent leaks, and addressing damage from rot or shipworms that could compromise speed, stability, and seaworthiness. The term "careening" originates from the late 16th century, derived from the French cariner meaning "to expose a ship's keel," which traces back through Italian carena to the Latin carina, referring to a ship's keel or nutshell-shaped hull. Historically, the practice dates to at least the late 15th century, with early depictions in Venetian art such as Vittore Carpaccio's Legend of St. Ursula (1490–1496), and it remained in use until the early 20th century, particularly in regions without dry docks like Northern Europe, North America, and coastal areas of the Americas. Regional variations included British use of shores or floating hulks, Dutch preference for barges, and American reliance on wharves, as seen with the USS Constitution in Boston in 1803. By the 17th century, innovations like outriggers—protruding beams to support the hull—became common for larger warships, exemplified by HMS Formidable employing 16 outriggers in 1843. The process required meticulous preparation to ensure safety and efficacy: the vessel was lightened by removing stores, guns, and upper rigging; masts were reinforced with shores and preventers; gunports were sealed; and ballast was adjusted, often using 30 to 80 butts (each about 108 imperial gallons) of water or sand. Crews then employed heavy tackles attached to masts, shrouds, and martingales, hauled by capstans or human power—sometimes requiring hundreds of men—to gradually heel the ship, exposing one side at a time over high tide cycles. Maintenance involved scraping (breaming) the hull with heat and metal tools, applying tar, pitch, or graving mixtures of tallow, lime, and lead, and later sheathing with wood, lead (from 1514 in Spanish ships), or copper (from 1761 on HMS Alarm). Though routine, careening was labor-intensive, time-consuming, and hazardous, risking mast breakage, capsizing, or loss to sudden gales, as occurred with the English East Indiaman Trade's Increase in 1609. Careening's significance extended beyond merchant and naval fleets to pirate vessels, which often sought secluded beaches for the task to avoid detection while maintaining operational speed. It declined with the proliferation of dry docks in the 19th century, such as the first U.S. Navy dry dock at Charlestown, completed in 1833, which rendered the method obsolete for larger ships but highlighted its role in maritime expansion before industrialized infrastructure.

Etymology and Definition

Etymology

The term "careening" originates from the French caréner, meaning to incline or tilt a ship on its side for maintenance, derived from carène (""), which traces back to the Italian carena and ultimately the Latin carīna ("keel of a ship"). This nautical sense reflects the action of exposing a vessel's hull by leaning it over, with the word entering English in the late 16th century, first attested in 1578 in the writings of William Bourne, a and naval author. It gained prominence in voyage accounts and logs during the early , such as Richard Hakluyt's The Principal Navigations (1600). In English nautical contexts, "careening" appeared in and terminology by the 1590s, evolving from the French and Italian roots associated with keel-related maneuvers. Related terms include the English "heaving down," which describes the same process of tilting a ship to access its underside. In Spanish, equivalents are varar (to beach or ground a vessel) and carenar (to careen specifically). These linguistic parallels highlight the term's roots in Mediterranean traditions, where keel-centered maintenance practices influenced European naval vocabulary from ancient Roman times onward, with variants persisting in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish maritime languages.

Definition

Careening is a nautical technique involving the deliberate tilting or heaving of a vessel to one side to expose the submerged portion of its hull, typically using ropes, capstans, , or shores, without requiring a . This method, also known as "heaving down," enables workers to access the underwater portions of the hull for cleaning or repair. The primary purposes of careening include the removal of marine growth, such as and weeds, which accumulate on the hull and reduce a vessel's speed and maneuverability. It also facilitates caulking the seams between planks to prevent leaks, as well as performing minor structural repairs and inspections to ensure the ship's overall seaworthiness. Careening differs from beaching, which refers to the broader practice of grounding or hauling a ship ashore for various purposes, often involving full or partial removal from the water, whereas careening specifically focuses on controlled tilting for targeted hull .

Historical Development

Origins and Early Use

The earliest evidence of careening-like practices emerges from ship techniques, where beaching vessels in shallow bays allowed access to hulls for repairs and . Around 500 BCE, Phoenician and Roman seafarers routinely employed beaching to ground ships, drawing on earlier traditions described in Homeric epics such as the Odyssey, where lightweight galleys were driven bow-first onto beaches for off-season storage and upkeep. Although the Mediterranean's minimal —typically under 30 cm—precluded extensive use of tidal grounding, draft beaching (settling the on the seabed) in protected bays facilitated hull drying, pitch application against shipworms, and basic , as evidenced by textual accounts from and visual depictions like the Sousse mosaic from the CE. These methods, while not involving the full tilting associated with later careening, established foundational practices for exposing underwater hull sections without dry docks. The adoption of careening into European naval traditions occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries, driven by the demands of transoceanic exploration that required improvised hull maintenance far from established shipyards. As wooden sailing ships accumulated marine fouling and structural wear on extended voyages, grounding and tilting became essential for preserving speed and seaworthiness. Early depictions appear in Venetian art, such as Vittore Carpaccio's Legend of St. Ursula (1490–1496), showing careening practices. A key early instance is Christopher Columbus's first voyage in 1492, when his fleet, consisting of the Santa María, Pinta, and Niña, resorted to careening in the Caribbean after weeks at sea. On November 5, 1492, at Puerto de Mares (modern-day Río de Mares) in Cuba, Columbus ordered his flagship careened first, followed by the other vessels in sequence to avoid leaving the fleet vulnerable; the site's deep water, clear sandy bottom, and abundant local timber for fuel made it ideal for the operation, which involved tilting the ship to scrape and repair the hull. This improvised technique highlighted the shift toward practical, site-specific careening amid the Age of Exploration. Non-Western traditions also contributed to the cultural origins of careening, with Polynesian methods for canoe upkeep providing parallel approaches to hull access and cleaning predating widespread European contact. Polynesian voyagers, known for navigating the Pacific using double-hulled or , routinely beached and tilted their craft on sandy shores for maintenance, turning smaller canoes upside down to protect and expose hulls from sun and surf damage. In regions like the and Ontong Java, canoes were hauled above the high-water line, rested on wooden blocks or logs, and cleaned by rubbing with pounded calcareous algae (milomilo) to seal cracks, whiten the surface, and remove growth, a process repeated over several days; larger vessels were partially filled with water during storage to prevent cracking, while construction techniques involved turning logs to even out hull thinning. These tilting and beaching practices, documented in ethnographic accounts from the 19th and 20th centuries, underscored similar imperatives for hull care in remote, tide-influenced environments.

Prominent Applications in the Age of Sail

During the Age of Sail, careening played a critical role in the operations of pirates and privateers, allowing them to maintain their vessels in remote locations away from official naval oversight. Pirates frequently sought secluded beaches for careening to remove fouling and repair damage, preserving their speed and evading capture. The British Royal Navy extensively employed careening during the to sustain its fleets in colonial waters, with , , serving as a key hub for such operations. Established as the principal base for the , featured a dedicated careening where warships could be heeled over for hull cleaning and repairs, essential for combating tropical marine growth and battle damage. This facility supported major campaigns, including the (1739–1748), where British squadrons under Admiral used for preparing vessels before assaults on Spanish ports in the , ensuring operational readiness amid intense naval engagements. The strategic importance of these practices at underscored the Navy's reliance on careening to project power across the Atlantic. Careening stations in the , particularly the Bombay Dockyard established by the in the early , were vital for enabling long-distance trade voyages and naval expeditions by facilitating hull maintenance in remote regions. The dockyard, operational from around 1736, utilized local resources for and repairs, reducing and extending service life for ships traversing the treacherous routes between Europe and . This supported the Company's dominance in global commerce, with dockyard activities contributing to the of fleets during the by providing logistical support and freeing up European facilities.

Methods and Techniques

Preparation and Execution

The preparation for careening began with selecting a suitable tidal location featuring shallow waters and a significant to allow the vessel to ground safely and expose the hull at . The ship would enter the site at high tide to ensure sufficient depth for maneuvering, often anchoring fore and aft to position it precisely alongside a shore or . This timing was critical to avoid stranding prematurely and to facilitate the subsequent tilting process. Once positioned, the vessel was lightened by removing , stores, sails, heavy armament, and excess to improve stability and reduce weight, with these items stored onshore or on adjacent platforms. Securing the ship involved anchors or fixed points and aft, often with tripping cables run under the through leeward ports to control the tilt. served as shores to reinforce the masts, while heavy tackles—attached to the mastheads and led to capstans or wharves—acted as levers to heave the vessel over safely, typically achieving a of 70-75 degrees without risking capsize. Preventer shrouds and outriggers provided additional support to distribute forces evenly during the operation. At , with the hull exposed on one side, the performed cleaning by scraping and burning off marine growth such as and weeds, followed by applying protective coatings like or pitch mixtures to seal the planking and prevent future . Repairs, if needed, included caulking seams to maintain watertightness. As the tide rose, the ship was righted using the tackles and refloated, then the process was repeated on the opposite side after repositioning. This multi-tide sequence, allowing for drying and work intervals, typically spanned 4-7 days for a full hull cleaning on a standard vessel, though major repairs could extend it to several weeks.

Tools and Materials

Careening required a specialized array of tools and materials to facilitate the cleaning, repair, and protection of a ship's hull once it was heeled over. These implements, often handmade by shipwrights or blacksmiths, were designed for the demanding conditions of working on a tilted vessel in shallow water or on a , where access to the underwater portions of the hull was limited. Primary tools focused on trimming damaged wood, removing fouling organisms like and weed, and resealing seams, while rigging aids provided the mechanical leverage and support necessary to tilt and stabilize the ship. Materials, derived from natural substances, ensured and temporary anti-fouling protection in an era before widespread . Among the primary tools, the was indispensable for trimming and shaping hull planks and timbers exposed during careening. This , featuring a curved to the handle, allowed carpenters to plane away rot or damage efficiently while the ship was heeled. Broad scrapers, typically iron blades with wooden handles, were used to remove encrustations such as , , and old coatings from the hull's surface—a process known as breaming when combined with burning off growth. For resealing the hull after , caulking irons of varying widths and shapes were employed to drive fibrous material into the seams between planks, preventing water ingress and maintaining structural integrity. Rigging aids were critical for the heaving-down phase of careening, where the ship was tilted using its own masts as levers. Heavy chains served as preventer shrouds or tripping cables, securing the masts and hull against the stresses of tilting, often lashed to ringbolts or passed over balk timbers for added tension. Blocks and tackles, including large treble blocks up to 40 inches in diameter with multi-part purchases (such as nine-part systems capable of exerting forces up to 80 tons), provided the needed to haul the ship over, typically anchored to the opposite masthead or shore. Temporary shores, constructed from sturdy timbers like , supported the exposed hull and masts once tilted, preventing collapse; these included diagonal props, structures, or belly shores positioned strategically to bear the vessel's weight. The materials applied during careening emphasized natural resins and fibers for durability in marine environments. Pitch or tar, heated to a liquid state, was brushed or poured over seams and the hull for waterproofing, often combined with strips for reinforcement in vulnerable areas like gunports. Oakum, made from untwisted or old fibers, was the standard filler for caulking, packed tightly into seams to expand when wet and form a watertight barrier. In the pre-copper sheathing era, lime-based paints—mixtures of slaked lime with , oil, or animal fats—served as rudimentary anti-fouling coatings, applied to deter marine growth by creating an alkaline surface; these were particularly common for smaller vessels or in regions where was burned to produce lime.

Facilities and Locations

Natural Sites

Natural sites for careening were typically sheltered bays or coves featuring soft mud or sand bottoms to minimize hull damage during grounding, combined with suitable tidal conditions that allowed vessels to list sufficiently at for hull exposure. These environmental conditions provided a natural alternative to dry docks, enabling improvised maintenance in remote areas without engineered infrastructure. In the , small cays and keys offered ideal natural venues due to their protected waters and proximity to shipping routes; for instance, the Dry Tortugas may have been used for careening activities in the 16th and 17th centuries by Spanish galleons and privateers, as suggested by historical speculation regarding its shoals and anchorages for hull cleaning amid heavy marine growth. Similarly, Isla de la Tortuga off served as a key during the , where its leeward bays likely facilitated safe grounding on sandy substrates for maintenance such as careening. Tropical regions predominated for such sites owing to accelerated in warm, nutrient-rich waters, where , , and other organisms accumulated rapidly on hulls, reducing speed and maneuverability and demanding regular maintenance. In the Pacific, exploratory ships occasionally relied on sheltered shores, like in encountered during Francis Drake's 1579 , where such locations allowed temporary hull work.

Purpose-Built Careenages

Purpose-built careenages represented a significant advancement in colonial naval infrastructure, designed specifically to facilitate the systematic , repair, and of ship hulls by allowing vessels to be hauled aground in controlled environments. These facilities typically featured sloped or ramps constructed from timber or stone, equipped with capstans and blocks to pull ships onto their sides, enabling access to the underwater hull for scraping , recaulking seams, and applying protective coatings. Unlike improvised beach careenings, these structures incorporated careening pits—shallow excavations along the edge—to support the vessel's and prevent damage during the heeling process, as evidenced in the 1745 plan of the careening at , . This design allowed for safer and more efficient operations, often accommodating multiple ships simultaneously and integrating with adjacent storehouses for materials like and pitch. In the 18th century, the British established one of the most prominent purpose-built careenages at English Harbour in Antigua, where the careening wharf, completed around 1745, included three capstans for hauling warships and was expanded in the 1760s to handle vessels up to 60 guns. The French developed similar facilities at Fort Royal (now Fort-de-France) in Martinique during the 1700s, utilizing the harbor's careenage for refitting warships and privateers, with the site protected by Fort Saint Louis and serving as a key base for operations during conflicts like the Seven Years' War. The Dutch, meanwhile, constructed the Barge Wharf in Paramaribo, Suriname, by the mid-18th century as a dedicated public yard for colonial fleets, featuring beams, planks, and a designated careening area to centralize repairs on Dutch, English, and French vessels, including documented careenings of company barks in 1743. By the mid-18th century, purpose-built careenages evolved from rudimentary beach-based methods—where ships were simply run aground at high —to fortified naval yards with integrated storage for supplies, reflecting the growing demands of imperial fleets for reliable, year-round hull in tropical waters. This transition enhanced operational efficiency and security, as seen in the expansion of English Harbour's facilities post-1744 to include lengthened wharves and protective enclosures, while reducing reliance on vulnerable natural sites exposed to weather and enemy raids.

Risks and Limitations

Operational Hazards

Careening operations posed significant structural risks to vessels, primarily due to the extreme tilting required to expose the hull, which could lead to uneven settling and excessive stress on the wooden frame. If the ship was overloaded or the ground unstable, this tilt might cause hull cracking or joints to weaken, as evidenced by incidents involving merchant ships during the early 18th century where improper support led to structural failures. For instance, the 1722 collapse of the wharf at Rhett’s Wharf supporting HMS Blandford, which halted the careening process, highlighting how equipment or support failures could compromise the ship's integrity during the process. Human participants faced acute dangers, including falls from the while hauling lines to control the tilt, injuries from handling heavy scraping tools or adzes on the precarious angled deck, and respiratory issues from inhaling and fumes produced when burning off accumulated marine growth—a step known as breaming. Enslaved and free laborers, often working on floating platforms or the exposed hull, were particularly vulnerable to burns from hot pitch or graving irons used to seal seams, with historical accounts describing the labor as grueling and prone to accidents. While precise fatality rates are not well-documented, the hazardous nature of these tasks contributed to notable losses in maritime operations of the era. Environmental threats amplified the perils, as careened ships, secured by anchors and often heeled over in shallow waters, were highly susceptible to sudden storms, high winds, or unexpected tidal shifts that could dislodge supports and strand the vessel irreparably. or rogue waves posed immediate risks of or further damage to the exposed hull, while fires ignited during breaming could spread rapidly on the dry side of the ship, prompting regulatory bans such as Charleston's 1734 on careening within city limits due to fire hazards. For example, the English Trade's Increase during careening in Java in 1609 due to a sudden , resulting in its .

Structural Constraints

Careening's effectiveness was constrained by the size of the vessel, with practices proving most feasible for smaller ships under 100 tons that could be managed in shallow water or even hauled ashore for maintenance. Larger wooden sailing vessels, such as warships exceeding 1,000 tons like the early 16th-century Henry Grace à Dieu, required more complex setups due to their mass, while 18th- and 19th-century increases in tonnage further complicated the heeling process by amplifying the forces needed to expose the hull. For example, an 84-gun ship like HMS Formidable demanded 16 outriggers for support during careening, highlighting how scale amplified instability risks, including the potential for the vessel to fail to right itself upon refloating if the heel exceeded safe limits. Ship design factors imposed additional limitations on careening. Hull shapes with narrower profiles were prone to instability when heeled, as the center of shifted unfavorably, whereas wider beams and higher freeboards—as seen in ships like Formidable—provided greater inherent stability but necessitated increased heeling forces and careful weight management to avoid . V-shaped keels, common in many vessels for hydrodynamic efficiency, could dig into soft substrates during grounding, complicating recovery, while flat-bottomed hulls offered better stability on even surfaces by distributing weight more evenly when tilted. Wooden construction exacerbated these issues, with vulnerabilities such as rotting timbers (exemplified by the 1782 sinking of HMS Royal George due to decayed structure) heightening the danger of structural failure under heeling stresses, and exposure to air during the process risking warping or seam opening as the wood dried unevenly. To address these constraints, adaptations included temporary shifts to adjust the center of gravity and enhance stability during the , a technique integral to the "parliamentary heel" method where weights were redistributed to expose hull sections incrementally. Internal shores, struts, and outriggers distributed forces across the hull to prevent damage, with examples like the French ship-of-the-line Courageux employing additional planking to counter issues from designs. These measures, along with lashing casks to the lee side for , were documented in 18th- and early 19th-century naval accounts, such as those detailing operations on HMS Melville, where 15 tons of were repositioned forward before removal to maintain balance. Tools like capstans and tackles facilitated these adaptations by enabling precise control over the angle.

Modern Applications and Alternatives

Current Practices

In modern maritime operations, careening remains a niche method primarily employed for small recreational and traditional vessels under 40 feet in length, particularly in remote areas lacking access to dry docks or haul-out facilities. This technique involves intentionally beaching the vessel at high to expose the hull for cleaning and minor repairs as the tide recedes, offering a cost-effective option for hull in locations with significant tidal ranges. Such applications are seen in isolated regions where modern is unavailable, allowing owners to address and structural issues without specialized equipment. Regulatory compliance is essential for these practices, with environmental laws focusing on preventing the spread of invasive aquatic species via . The International Maritime Organization's 2023 Guidelines for the control and management of ships' to minimize the transfer of invasive aquatic species outline a risk-based approach, including regular hull inspections, cleaning protocols, and record-keeping to ensure does not proliferate during exposure. These guidelines apply to all vessels, including small ones, recommending ship-specific management plans that address maintenance activities like careening to avoid ecological harm. Additionally, maritime authorities enforce safety protocols, such as site assessments for stable grounding and emergency preparedness, to protect operators and vessels during tidal operations. A notable in the revival of careening for cultural and educational purposes is the maintenance of the historic North Star of , where the vessel was deliberately careened on a beach in traditional fashion to recreate 18th- and 19th-century ship repair methods, highlighting its ongoing relevance in historical preservation efforts. Similar demonstrations occur in maritime festivals and reenactments, underscoring careening's role in connecting contemporary audiences with seafaring heritage while adhering to modern regulatory standards.

Contemporary Substitutes

Drydocking represents a primary modern substitute for traditional careening, utilizing floating or graving docks to fully lift vessels out of the water for comprehensive hull maintenance and repairs. This method became a standard practice in the as maritime powers, particularly the , expanded networks of dry docks to support growing fleets and global trade routes. Floating dry docks, which can be submerged to allow ships to enter and then raised by pumping out water, offer flexibility for locations without permanent infrastructure, while graving docks are fixed basins that are drained after the vessel enters. Today, global facilities, such as those operated by Hyundai Heavy Industries in , can accommodate ships up to 200,000 deadweight tons (DWT) or more, enabling efficient handling of large commercial and naval vessels without reliance on tidal cycles. Marine railways and travelifts provide another key alternative, particularly for smaller vessels like yachts, by hauling boats ashore using sloped tracks or mobile cranes independent of tides. Marine railways, patented in the early 19th century, evolved into more widespread use for recreational boating in the mid-20th century, with travelifts—self-propelled gantry cranes—invented in the late 1940s and commercialized by companies like Marine Travelift starting in 1954. These systems allow for precise positioning and storage on land, reducing the need for water-based tilting and minimizing environmental disruption from beaching. By the 1950s, travelifts became common in boatyards for their efficiency in hauling vessels up to several hundred tons, supplanting older railway methods in many facilities. Advancements in anti-fouling technologies have further diminished the necessity for frequent physical hull cleaning akin to careening, with silicone-based paints and electrolytic systems offering long-term protection against biofouling. Silicone foul-release coatings create low-surface-energy surfaces that prevent marine organisms from adhering strongly, allowing them to be washed away by the ship's motion, and have gained prominence in the 2020s for their environmental benefits and potential to reduce fuel consumption by up to 5-10% through smoother hulls. Electrolytic systems, which generate copper ions via low-voltage anodes installed in seawater intake systems, inhibit growth in pipes and on hulls without broad chemical release, and are among the most common non-paint methods for commercial ships. These innovations align with 2020s International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations under the Anti-Fouling Systems Convention, which prohibit harmful biocides like organotins and cybutryne (effective 2023), promoting eco-friendly alternatives to extend intervals between maintenance.

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  30. https://www.marineinsight.com/naval-architecture/largest-dry-docks/
  31. https://www.marinetravelift.com/about/
  32. https://www.nationalfisherman.com/boats-gear/feature-off-the-rails
  33. https://www.lr.org/en/knowledge/press-room/press-listing/press-release/2025/silicone-based-hull-coatings-to-deliver-significant-emissions-reduction/
  34. https://www.marineinsight.com/tech/4-types-of-anti-fouling-systems-used-on-board-ships-to-prevent-marine-growth/
  35. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Anti-fouling.aspx
  36. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/international-affairs/partnerships-organizations/anti-fouling-systems-ships.html
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