Hubbry Logo
Champlain SeaChamplain SeaMain
Open search
Champlain Sea
Community hub
Champlain Sea
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Champlain Sea
Champlain Sea
Champlain Sea
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
The Champlain Sea

The Champlain Sea (French: Mer de Champlain) was a prehistoric inlet of the Atlantic Ocean into the North American continent, created by the retreating ice sheets during the closure of the last glacial period.[1][2] The inlet once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont.[3] Today, the remains of the sea include the St. Lawrence Seaway, Lake Champlain, Lake of Two Mountains on the lower Ottawa River, and the lower Saguenay River, as well as other lakes, islands and shores.[4]

Origins

[edit]

The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia. At the end of the last glacial period, while the rock was still depressed, the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys, as well as modern Lake Champlain, at that time Lake Vermont, were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels, once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region.[5] As the land gradually rose again, in the process known as isostatic rebound, the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location.

The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time, since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level. At its peak, the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa, Ontario, and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke.[6] At one time Glacial Lake Iroquois became an arm of the Champlain Sea called Gilbert Gulf.[7] The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time, making it more brackish than typical seawater. It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 metres (490 ft) above the level of today's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers.[6]

Geological evidence

[edit]

The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers.[8] This resulted in distinctive forest types,[9] and large wetlands. Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of fossils of whales (belugas, fin whales,[10] and bowhead whales), walruses and other pinnipeds,[11][12] and marine shells[13] that have been found near the cities of Ottawa, Ontario, and Montreal, Quebec. There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin.[14] The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions, and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water.[15]

The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian Shield form Eardley Escarpment. This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the era when the sea existed.[16] The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills. It is part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec, more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley.

See also

[edit]
For glacial Great Lakes, see Great Lakes § Geology.

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Champlain Sea

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Champlain Sea was a post-glacial inland body of saltwater that occupied the Champlain Valley and adjacent regions in northeastern North America during the late Pleistocene epoch, approximately 12,500 to 10,000 years ago. It formed as retreating glaciers from the Laurentide Ice Sheet exposed a depressed land surface—sunk below sea level due to isostatic loading from the ice's immense weight—allowing Atlantic Ocean waters to flood northward through the St. Lawrence River estuary into the basin previously occupied by glacial Lake Vermont. The sea's extent spanned from near modern-day Kingston, Ontario, and eastern New York State, northward through the St. Lawrence Valley into southern Quebec and Vermont, covering an area of approximately 55,000 square kilometers with depths reaching up to 200 meters in places, and its salinity gradually decreased southward from marine levels (around 35 permille) to brackish and near-freshwater conditions due to glacial meltwater influx. This temporary marine incursion marked a pivotal transition in the region's post-glacial landscape evolution, hosting a diverse array of Atlantic marine species including beluga whales, seals, , blue mussels, sea stars, urchins, and various mollusks and , whose fossils—such as the notable "Charlotte Whale" skeleton discovered in —provide key evidence of its existence and ecology. The Champlain Sea's disappearance occurred over about 2,000 years as ongoing isostatic rebound lifted the land, severing its connection to the Atlantic and transforming it into the freshwater by around 10,000 years ago, while depositing extensive marine sediments, clays, and gravel beaches that shape the modern valley's soils and terrain. Geologically, it exemplifies the dynamic interplay of glacial retreat, sea-level rise, and crustal adjustment during the end of the last , influencing current hydrology, biodiversity, and even archaeological sites in the Champlain Valley National Heritage Partnership region.

Formation and Timeline

Glacial Retreat and Initial Flooding

The retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet began around 13,000 years before present (BP), progressively exposing the St. Lawrence and valleys as the ice margin pulled back northward from these lowlands. This deglaciation was marked by rapid ice-front recession rates of 700–900 meters per year in western , facilitating the initial drainage of into topographic lows. Prior to full marine incursion, proglacial lakes such as Lake Candona formed in the depressed basins, occupying up to 30,000 km² in the St. Lawrence Lowlands and serving as temporary repositories for glacial . The primary mechanism enabling widespread flooding was glacial isostatic depression, where the immense weight of the Laurentide Ice Sheet—estimated at several kilometers thick—had compressed the underlying crust by hundreds of meters, displacing viscous mantle material and causing significant land . Upon ice retreat, this forebulge collapse and ongoing crustal adjustment allowed waters to inundate the region via the pathway, transforming the proglacial lakes into a marine embayment. The interaction of eustatic sea-level rise, driven by global ice-sheet melting, with local isostatic dynamics resulted in initial relative sea levels approximately 150 meters above modern datum in the affected valleys. The Champlain Sea's formation commenced circa 12,900 calibrated years BP (ca. 11,100 radiocarbon years BP), shortly after the drainage of major proglacial lakes like Candona around 13,100 calibrated years BP (ca. 11,300 radiocarbon years BP), marking the onset of marine conditions through the influx of saline Atlantic waters. This transition was abrupt in central St. Lawrence Lowlands sites, with evidence of a 30–50 meter drop in lake levels preceding the marine invasion, which introduced ostracods and other marine indicators into the sediments.

Duration and Regression Phases

The Champlain Sea existed for approximately 2,500 years, from about 12,500 to 10,000 years (BP), marking a significant postglacial phase in the St. Lawrence Lowlands and adjacent basins. This duration is divided into an early phase of marine incursion beginning around 12,500 following the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, a period of peak extent and stability near 12,000 , and a late phase of freshwater transition culminating by 10,000 . The inception occurred as isostatically depressed terrain allowed Atlantic waters to flood northward through the St. Lawrence Valley, initially mixing with from retreating glaciers. The sea's evolution included distinct hydrological phases reflecting changing salinity and connectivity. An early brackish marine phase, around 12,500 to 12,000 BP, featured fluctuating salinities due to the influx of glacial meltwater diluting incoming seawater, as evidenced by mixed freshwater and euryhaline faunal assemblages in core sediments. This transitioned to a mid-phase of full saline intrusion by approximately 12,000 BP, when marine conditions stabilized with polyhaline to mesohaline waters supporting cold-temperate marine biota, coinciding with the sea's maximum inundation. Marine conditions persisted in core areas until about 11,000 BP, after which a shift to lacustrine conditions began as the sea shallowed and isolated from Atlantic influences. Regression was primarily driven by ongoing glacial isostatic rebound, which elevated the depressed crust at rates exceeding the eustatic sea-level fall, resulting in gradual shallowing and shoreline progradation over the late phase. By around 11,000 to 10,000 , rising land levels severed connections to the Atlantic Ocean through the narrowing St. Lawrence outlet, transforming the basin into a freshwater lake precursor to modern and the system. This process is documented by tilted strandlines and regressive sedimentary sequences, with full isolation achieved circa 9,800–9,700 calibrated years in southern extents.

Geographical Extent

Boundaries and Maximum Reach

The Champlain Sea attained its maximum spatial extent approximately 12,000 years before present, inundating the St. Lawrence Lowlands across parts of modern-day , , New York, and . Its northern boundary aligned with the Canadian Shield near the present-day , while the southern limit extended into the valley, reaching elevations up to 160 meters above modern in the region. To the east, the sea was constrained by the rising terrain of the , which formed a natural barrier limiting marine incursion into higher ground. In the west, the extent pushed beyond the modern city of Ottawa into , advancing up the valley as far as Pembroke and connecting briefly toward the basin near Kingston via narrow straits. At peak, the Champlain Sea encompassed an area comparable to that of modern , approximately 55,000 square kilometers, reflecting the profound isostatic depression of the post-glacial landscape. Depth varied regionally due to topographic and isostatic factors, remaining shallow in the upper reaches—typically less than 50 meters—while attaining greater depths of up to 200 meters in the lower St. Lawrence Valley relative to contemporary .

Hydrological Connections

The Champlain Sea maintained its primary hydrological connection to the Atlantic Ocean through the , which acted as the main conduit for marine water influx into the depressed St. Lawrence Lowland following the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet around 12,000 years BP. This pathway allowed saline Atlantic waters to flood the basin, forming an inland extension of the ocean that reached depths of up to 200 meters in some areas. The 's role was critical in establishing the sea's marine character, with sedimentological evidence indicating active water exchange that supported polyhaline conditions near the inlet. A secondary connection extended through the valley, which served as a northern arm of the Champlain Sea and facilitated additional marine incursions. Tidal influences penetrated upstream along this arm, as evidenced by reworked marine sediments and fossiliferous deposits near , approximately 150 km inland from modern , indicating dynamic coastal processes including tidal currents that influenced sedimentation up to 10,870 ± 130 years . These tidal effects, with amplitudes estimated at around 10 meters near the sea's entrance, diminished northward but still shaped the in the Ottawa arm. Significant freshwater inputs from glacial , sourced from residual ice lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, further defined the sea's hydrology by diluting incoming marine waters and fostering brackish estuarine conditions across the basin. These discharges, often channeled through pathways like the , lowered salinities progressively southward and contributed to the formation of features such as eskers and deltaic deposits. The interplay of and marine inflows created a gradient of , with fresher conditions dominating in the upper reaches near retreating ice margins. As isostatic rebound progressively uplifted the region during the regression phase, the St. Lawrence outlet was elevated, severing the sea's connection to the Atlantic and isolating the basin by approximately 11,000 years . This rebound, occurring at rates that outpaced global sea-level rise, led to a forced regression marked by the deposition of regressive marine muds and the eventual transition to lacustrine environments in the . The closure marked the end of marine influence, with the basin's shifting to freshwater drainage patterns that persist today.

Paleoenvironment and Ecology

Water Chemistry and Climate

The Champlain Sea exhibited predominantly conditions resulting from the mixing of saltwater with substantial influxes of glacial from retreating sheets. This dilution created a pronounced gradient, with marine salinities of approximately 20-35 parts per thousand (ppt) in the lower, eastern reaches near the connection, transitioning to brackish levels of 10-20 ppt in central basins, and further decreasing to near-freshwater conditions (0-5 ppt) in upstream, southern areas influenced by proglacial runoff. Salinities at the sea floor in deeper southern basins occasionally approached full marine values of up to 35 ppt during periods of reduced input. The regional climate during the Champlain Sea episode (approximately 13,000 to 10,000 years ago) was cool temperate, characterized by seasonal ice cover and average water temperatures ranging from -1°C in winter to 8-12°C in summer, broadly comparable to modern subarctic estuaries like . These conditions were moderated by the proximity of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which contributed cold meltwater and limited atmospheric warming, resulting in temperatures roughly 5-10°C higher than during the preceding but 5-10°C cooler than present-day summers. Paleotemperature estimates from ostracode assemblages indicate bottom water summers rarely exceeded 11°C, with occasional warmer intervals up to 16°C during interstadials. Significant stratification developed in the Champlain Sea due to the overlay of less dense freshwater from glacial melt onto denser marine incursions, particularly in deeper basins exceeding 100 m, leading to reduced vertical mixing. This stratification was exacerbated by the sea's estuarine dynamics, where freshwater inputs from the southeast and northwest created a that inhibited oxygenation of deeper layers. Over the course of its existence, the Champlain Sea's water chemistry underwent distinct shifts: initial invasion around 13,000 years ago established near-marine salinities (27-35 ppt) in the absence of heavy dilution, followed by a mid-phase decrease to brackish levels (10-20 ppt) as proglacial drainage intensified around 12,000-11,000 years ago. then progressively freshened during the regression phase after 11,000 years ago, as isostatic rebound severed marine connections and isolated freshwater lakes, culminating in salinities below 5 ppt by 10,000 years ago. These temporal variations were driven by fluctuating hydrological inputs, with brief reversals to higher during reduced ice-melt periods.

Marine Life and Fossils

The Champlain Sea hosted a diverse assemblage of marine fauna adapted to its brackish conditions, including marine mammals, , and . Among the most prominent were cetaceans such as beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas), which comprise approximately 80% of recorded whale specimens from the sea's deposits, along with bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), and fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus). Pinnipeds were also present, including ringed seals (Pusa hispida), harbor seals (Phoca vitulina), harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus), and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus), with walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) evidenced by a nearly complete skull discovered in sediments near Sainte-Julienne-de-Montcalm, . Fish species included (Mallotus villosus), a common oceanic form whose fossils are frequently found in Leda clays, as well as lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) and sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spp.). , particularly bivalves like clams (Mya spp. and Macoma spp.) and mussels (Mytilus edulis), dominated the benthic community, with species such as Saxicava rugosa and Macoma groenlandica widespread due to their tolerance for varying salinities. Evidence for floral components in the Champlain Sea is limited, reflecting the challenges of preservation in fine-grained sediments, but assemblages suggest the presence of marine and salinity-tolerant aquatic akin to those in modern brackish estuaries. Benthic , including red and green species, likely formed foundational primary producers, supporting the observed faunal diversity through nutrient cycling in the . Ecological dynamics were driven by migratory patterns, with many entering the Champlain Sea from the via the St. Lawrence Valley, drawn by open marine connections during . Food webs were bolstered by nutrient-rich glacial , fostering high productivity that sustained like as prey for larger mammals, while benthic thrived in the silty, low-oxygen substrates. The brackish environment, with gradients decreasing southward, facilitated this influx and supported a transitional blending and temperate elements. Fossils of Champlain Sea biota are primarily concentrated in the upper and areas near , reflecting migration routes and depositional hotspots in nearshore gravels and clays. Vertebrate remains, such as bones from gravel pits near and beluga skeletons in Vermont's clays, indicate seasonal movements along the sea's extent, while abundant shells cluster in these regions, underscoring the sea's role as a corridor for Atlantic species.

Geological Evidence

Sedimentary Deposits

The sedimentary deposits of the Champlain Sea primarily consist of fine-grained glaciomarine sediments accumulated during the postglacial marine incursion following the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet around 11,500 to 10,000 years . These deposits formed through the settling of suspended glacial , clay, and marine particles in a low-energy basin environment, where hyperpycnal and hypopycnal flows from plumes delivered into the saline waters. Annual cycles of deposition are evident in varved sequences, characterized by alternating coarse /sand couplets (darker summer layers) and finer clay laminae (lighter winter layers), reflecting seasonal variations in input and marine rates. The most prominent deposit is Leda clay, a sensitive, fine-grained marine clay/silt composed mainly of rock flour from glacial abrasion, with high water content (25-90%) and low (<2 g/L) due to post-depositional leaching. Formed in quiet, deep-water settings, this clay exhibits a sensitivity ratio of 20-100 (up to 168 in some areas), making it prone to large-scale retrogressive landslides and flows when disturbed, as seen in modern geohazards along river valleys. In shallower areas, coarser sediments such as s, sands, and silty rhythmites (<7 m thick) accumulated, often in deltaic or prodeltaic environments, transitioning from varved bases to massive bioturbated muds and stratified red/grey muds higher in the sequence. These sediments reach thicknesses averaging 10-35 m across the basin, with local accumulations exceeding 100 m in valleys, such as up to 104.7 m near Treadwell and 60 m east of Lefaivre along the . Distribution is concentrated along the modern St. Lawrence and lowlands in , covering most of the St. Lawrence Lowlands (thousands of square kilometers) from Pembroke to Hawkesbury and south/east of Ottawa, with interruptions by highs, glacial tills, and sands. The regression of the influenced deposition patterns, leading to offlap sequences from prodelta rhythmites to upper deltaic sands as water depths decreased.

Shoreline Features and Modern Traces

The preserved shoreline features of the Champlain Sea provide key evidence of its former extent and regression, with raised beaches and wave-cut terraces visible at elevations of 150-200 meters above modern . These features mark the positions of ancient coastlines, formed through the action of waves and tides on the soft sediments and exposed during the sea's fluctuating levels. In the region, for instance, terraces at approximately 180-200 meters represent the maximum marine incursion around 11,400 years . Southward, near the modern basin, similar terraces occur at 150-170 meters, reflecting isostatic rebound that has uplifted these indicators differentially across the landscape. A prominent erosional remnant is the Eardley in the Gatineau Hills, a steep cliff rising up to 300 meters, sculpted primarily by wave erosion on resistant bedrock during the Champlain Sea's regression. This , extending along the northern margin of the former sea basin, exhibits undercutting and notches attributable to prolonged marine wave action around 11,200 years , when sea levels were dropping due to isostatic uplift. The 's face, particularly near Champlain Lookout, shows smoothed surfaces and basal platforms indicative of tidal and storm influences on the exposed highlands. Other traces include deltaic deposits at ancient river mouths and boulder fields resulting from wave reworking. Deltaic sediments, such as those from the in , form broad, flat plains of sand and gravel at elevations of 150-160 meters, built as rivers discharged into the brackish waters of the Champlain Sea. Boulder fields, often concentrated along former shore zones, consist of lag deposits where finer was winnowed away by waves, leaving scattered large clasts up to several meters in diameter; these are evident in areas like the northeastern Adirondacks at 140-180 meters elevation. These features overlie finer-grained Champlain Sea muds, which provided the substrate for such coastal processes. Dating of these shoreline features relies on relative and absolute methods to establish . uses the principle of superposition, where higher-elevation terraces overlie lower ones, indicating sequential regression phases from about 12,500 to 10,000 years . Absolute ages are determined primarily through of associated organic materials, such as marine shells (e.g., Mya arenaria) embedded in beach gravels, yielding calibrated ages of 10,800-10,000 years for the main regression. These methods confirm the features' linkage to the Champlain Sea episode without relying on post-glacial fluvial modifications.

Significance and Legacy

Influence on Contemporary Landscape

The deposition of fine-grained marine sediments by the Champlain Sea during the significantly influenced development in the St. Lawrence and lowlands of southern and . These glacio-marine clays, often referred to as Leda clays, formed thick layers up to 30 meters deep, creating fertile clay plains that, when drained, support intensive such as corn, soybeans, and . In , east of Montreal, the gentle slopes and nutrient-rich clays derived from these sediments enable high agricultural productivity across extensive lowlands. Similarly, in Ontario's Mixedwood Plains ecozone, the clays contribute to Humic Gleysols that cover millions of hectares of prime farmland, though they require artificial drainage systems due to poor natural permeability. The Champlain Sea's sedimentary infilling played a key role in shaping regional landforms by flattening pre-existing glacial valleys and producing low-relief plains. Thick accumulations of and clay, deposited over buried valleys up to 100 meters deep, masked topographic irregularities and created nearly horizontal surfaces across the and St. Lawrence basins, transforming rugged post-glacial terrain into broad, flat lowlands suitable for modern . Post-depositional by rivers incising these soft sediments has further sculpted the , exposing ridges and forming escarpments up to 10 meters high along valley margins, as seen near the where cliffs protrude through the overlying plains. These processes resulted in the distinctive gently rolling to level plains that characterize much of the contemporary topography in and western . The sea's extent also left a lasting hydrological imprint, with modern river systems largely following the ancient marine channels and influencing drainage patterns in the St. Lawrence and Ottawa basins. The , one of the world's youngest major waterways, traverses the former seabed of the Champlain Sea below , its course molded by the post-glacial emergence of these lowlands. Incision by high-discharge meltwater rivers into the soft clays has established persistent drainage routes, contributing to the ecozone's high proportion of surface water—about 42%—and shaping tributary networks that facilitate the flow of the into the St. Lawrence system. Ongoing isostatic rebound from glacial unloading continues to affect the region, with differential uplift rates up to several millimeters per year elevating former sea floors and exacerbating instability in clay-rich areas. This , which began around 9,500 years ago and persists today, has led to the leaching of salts from the marine clays, transforming them into sensitive "quick clays" prone to . As a result, risks and large-scale landslides, including retrogressive earth flows, threaten low-relief plains in both and , with over 250 such events mapped in alone due to the clays' high sensitivity and low .

Implications for Human History

The regression of the Champlain Sea, which began around 11,000 years (BP) and concluded by approximately 9,500 BP, temporally overlapped with the arrival of Paleo-Indian peoples in northeastern . These early hunter-gatherers entered the region via ice-free corridors that opened as the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated, around 12,500 BP, allowing migration from southward through deglaciated landscapes. The Champlain Sea's presence during this period transformed the Northeast into a peninsula-like configuration, facilitating human movement along its southern arm through eastern New York and , where post-glacial environments supported vegetation and . Archaeological evidence from the Champlain Valley reveals Paleo-Indian adaptations to the marine-influenced landscape, with fluted projectile points and other lithic artifacts concentrated along relic shorelines and well-drained marine deposits such as beaches and deltas. Sites like the Reagen site in Highgate, Vermont, yielded tools sourced from distant quarries in New York, New Hampshire, and Maine, indicating wide-ranging mobility and seasonal exploitation of coastal resources, including marine mammals and fish. The Fairfax Sandblows site (VT-FR-64) in northern Vermont, one of the earliest reported Paleo-Indian locations in New England, features artifacts embedded in sand dunes formed from Champlain Sea beach deposits, suggesting campsites oriented toward the water's edge. Submerged sites offshore remain a potential avenue for discovery, as isostatic rebound has preserved some underwater contexts from early coastal activities. Indigenous oral traditions in the region may reference the transformative post-glacial flooding associated with the Champlain Sea, as seen in Abenaki stories of creation where the being Odzihozo shapes the land and forms (known as Pitawbagw, or "lake between") by dragging himself across the earth, filling a depression with rainwater between mountain ranges. These narratives, passed down through generations, underscore a deep cultural connection to the waterway's origins and environmental changes. Modern recognition persists in Indigenous place names, such as the Abenaki Bitawbagw for and the Mohawk Kaniá:tare tsi kahnhokà:ronte, meaning "door of the country" or "lake to the country," reflecting its role as a vital corridor for trade and travel among Algonquian and . Studies of Paleo-Indian interactions with the Champlain Sea environment offer key insights into responses to rapid in , highlighting adaptive strategies like shoreline travel corridors and resource diversification amid shifting and biota. Site patterning along the sea's margins demonstrates how early groups navigated marine transgressions and regressions, informing broader models of in glaciated terrains. This contributes to understanding resilient human lifeways during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, with implications for predicting archaeological preservation in similar post-glacial settings.

References

  1. https://champlainvalleynhp.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Geology-Guide-2020.pdf
  2. https://www.lcbp.org/2024/06/q-when-was-lake-champlain-the-champlain-sea/
  3. https://uwaterloo.ca/wat-on-earth/news/champlain-sea-here-yesterday-gone-tomorrow
  4. https://nysm.nysed.gov/sites/default/files/the_champlain_sea_a.pdf
  5. https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/champlain-sea
  6. https://www2.newpaltz.edu/fop/pdf/FOP2009Guide.pdf
  7. https://serc.carleton.edu/vignettes/collection/58451.html
  8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2005.02.003
  9. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2021-0005
  10. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/14c-dates-and-stable-isotope-ecology-of-marine-vertebrates-in-the-late-pleistoceneearly-holocene-champlain-sea/DE323984CD19E2C76A537438100285A2
  11. https://www2.newpaltz.edu/fop/pdf/NEFOP2008.pdf
  12. https://www.academia.edu/4771715/Between_the_Mountains_and_the_Sea_an_Exploration_of_the_Champlain_Sea_and_Paleoindian_Land_Use_in_the_Champlain_Basin
  13. https://nysl.ptfs.com/data/Library1/Library1/pdf/52806782.pdf
  14. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/latewisconsin-marine-environments-of-the-champlain-valley-new-york-quebec/D2DA39AF8ED5FD5273391B704F6FFB1A
  15. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/rncan-nrcan/M183-2-6947-eng.pdf
  16. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178
  17. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148329/discovering-the-charlotte-whale
  18. https://chesapeaketech.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/2013_Middlebury_Analysis_of_the_Four_Brothers_Slump_Lake_Champlain.pdf
  19. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/9603560a0a3a4a0a899204f9eae68714
  20. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/rncan-nrcan/M44-86-23-eng.pdf
  21. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1089/report.pdf
  22. https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/Harington14.pdf
  23. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005QSRv...24.1463B/abstract
  24. https://dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/geo/GMG/VTGS_1980.pdf
  25. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379104003257
  26. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/e81-117
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237171262_An_Arctic_foraminiferal_fauna_from_Champlain_Sea_deposits_in_Ontario
  28. https://members.cgs.ca/documents/conference2010/GEO2010/pdfs/GEO2010_033.pdf
  29. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0033589477900394
  30. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ageo/1974-v10-n1-ageo_10_1/ageo10_1rep03.pdf
  31. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379111002447
  32. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0033589482900278
  33. https://michaelmann.net/sites/default/files/articles/Katz-2011-QSRPreprint.pdf
  34. https://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/2001_champlain2_mb/whales.htm
  35. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/csp/cjes/article/30/8/1715/52326/First-evidence-of-walrus-Odobenus-rosmarus-L-in
  36. https://science.gc.ca/site/science/en/educational-resources/history-geological-survey-canada-175-objects/25-fossil-fish-1872
  37. https://dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/geo/StatewidePubs/BriefFossilHostoryVT1992.pdf
  38. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-642-75115-8.pdf
  39. https://www.uvm.edu/ccp/naturalhistory/charlotte-whale
  40. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X22000587
  41. https://prd-0420-geoontario-0000-blob-cge0eud7azhvfsf7.z01.azurefd.net/lrc-geology-documents/publication/OFR5357/OFR5357.pdf
  42. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10706-024-02852-y
  43. https://www.iaac-aeic.gc.ca/050/documents/p80121/160773E.pdf
  44. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/csp/cjes/article/59/11/826/619131/Reconstruction-of-isostatically-adjusted-paleo
  45. https://www.cgenarchive.org/uploads/2/5/2/6/25269392/theme9_2b_e.pdf
  46. https://dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/geo/StatewidePubs/SurfMapopt.pdf
  47. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/cjes/article/6/3/367/54726/Radiocarbon-dates-Mya-arenaria-phase-of-the
  48. https://adamchukpa.mcgill.ca/bgstech/bgstech_presentation/1409.pdf
  49. https://www.saskoer.ca/soilscience/chapter/soils-of-ontario/
  50. http://www.ecozones.ca/english/zone/MixedwoodPlains/land.html
  51. https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/9s161691p
  52. https://www.nysga-online.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/NYSGA-2004-A3-The-1993-Lemieux-Landslide-And-Mer-Bleue-Bog-Southeastern-Ontario-Canada.pdf
  53. https://doi.org/10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178
  54. https://www.lcmm.org/explore/lake-champlain-history/native-american-occupation-prehistoric-1609/
  55. https://www.vtarchaeology.org/wp-content/uploads/v9_ch2_reduced.pdf
  56. https://repository.si.edu/bitstreams/ac5a88b2-66d0-46ed-9fb6-bd07085773a7/download
  57. https://www.helloburlingtonvt.com/blog/post/the-creation-of-lake-champlain-gc47m/
  58. https://abenakination.com/missisquoi-history
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.