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Conocybe
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Conocybe
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Conocybe
Conocybe tenera
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Bolbitiaceae
Genus: Conocybe
Type species
Conocybe tenera
(Schaeff.) Fayod (1889)
Synonyms[1]

Conocybe is a genus of mushrooms with Conocybe tenera as the type species and at least 243 other species. There are at least 50 different species in North America.

Most have a long, thin fragile stipe and are delicate, growing in grasslands on dead moss, dead grass, sand dunes, decayed wood, and dung. Conocybe species generally prefer fertile soils in lawns and pastures and are found worldwide. Conocybe species are sometimes called dunce caps or cone heads due to their conical or bell-shaped caps. Former species of Conocybe that have a well-developed partial veil and/or lack lecythiform cheilocystidia have been transferred to the genus Pholiotina, which was formerly a subgenus of Conocybe.[2] However, Pholiotina as it is currently defined is polyphyletic, although none of the three clades that make it up belong in Conocybe.[2] Similar to Galerina, a Conocybe species can be distinguished microscopically by its cellular cap cuticle, which is filamentous (thread-like) in Galerina. It is easy to confuse Conocybe species for Galerina species unless the microscopic nature of the cap cuticle is examined. Conocybe species have cap cuticles resembling cobblestones. Conocybe species can also be mistaken for species of Bolbitius.

Four species of Conocybe that are known to contain the hallucinogenic compounds psilocin and psilocybin are C. kuehneriana, C. siligineoides, C. cyanopus, and C. smithii.[3][4] Conocybe siligineoides was used for shamanic purposes by the Mazatecs of Oaxaca.[5]

Conocybe filaris and Conocybe rugosa are somewhat common mushrooms that contain the deadly cyclic peptide alpha-amanitin.

Conocybe comes from the Greek cono meaning cone and cybe meaning head.

Conocybe cf. coprophila underside

Selected species

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Main article: List of Conocybe species
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Main article: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

United States

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Louisiana

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Except for ornamental purposes, growing, selling or possessing Conocybe spp. (and Psilocybe spp.) is prohibited by Louisiana State Act 159.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Conocybe

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
is a genus of small to medium-sized agaric fungi in the family Bolbitiaceae, characterized by fragile fruiting bodies with conical to campanulate caps, slender stipes, and rusty-brown spore prints. The generic name derives from the Greek words kônos (cone) and kubê (head), alluding to the distinctive cap morphology. With over 240 described species, primarily saprotrophic and often coprophilous or terricolous in grasslands and disturbed soils worldwide, the genus encompasses a spectrum of edibility; while many are inconspicuous and non-toxic, select species produce the hallucinogenic compounds psilocybin and psilocin, and others contain potent amatoxins responsible for severe gastrointestinal and hepatic poisoning akin to that of Amanita phalloides. These traits underscore the risks of misidentification in foraging, as innocuous-appearing Conocybe specimens have contributed to documented intoxications.

Taxonomy

Etymology and classification history

The genus name Conocybe derives from the Greek words kōnos (κόνος), meaning "cone," and kubē (κυβή), meaning "head," referring to the characteristic conical shape of the pileus in many species. The genus was formally established by Swiss mycologist Victor Fayod in 1889 within his treatment of the agarics from the Geneva region, with Conocybe tenera designated as the type species based on its representative morphology including the campanulate cap and brown spores. Early classifications placed Conocybe species among small brown-spored agarics, often near genera with superficial resemblances such as those in the Coprinaceae, due to habitat overlaps and macroscopic similarities, though lacking the auto-digestion typical of coprinoid fungi. Taxonomic challenges arose in delimiting Conocybe from look-alikes like Galerina, relying on microscopic features such as the shape of cheilocystidia—lecythiform or utriform in Conocybe versus more variable in Galerina—and spore ornamentation. In 1948, Rolf Singer circumscribed the family Bolbitiaceae and transferred Conocybe thereto, emphasizing spore morphology with olivaceous to rusty-brown pigmentation, a prominent germ pore, and smooth walls, alongside the absence of chrysocystidia, distinguishing it from broader families. Throughout the early , mycologists including Federico Kühnemann described additional species, particularly from temperate grasslands and dung, underscoring the genus's saprobic nature and morphological variability while refining boundaries with confamilial genera like Bolbitius.

Phylogenetic position and recent revisions

Molecular phylogenetic analyses employing nuclear ribosomal (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) rDNA sequences have established Conocybe's position within the Bolbitiaceae family of the order. These multi-locus approaches, prominent since the early , confirm a sister-group relationship with Bolbitius, while molecular data corroborate morphological distinctions such as the consistent absence of pleurocystidia in Conocybe, contrasting with their presence in Bolbitius. This placement diverges from earlier morphology-centric classifications that occasionally aligned Conocybe more broadly with coprinoid or strophariaceous fungi, highlighting how DNA-based has refined family-level boundaries by resolving paraphyletic groupings in traditional Bolbitiaceae concepts. Post-2000 revisions have increasingly integrated molecular tools to address cryptic diversity, with via ITS revealing numerous morphologically indistinguishable species complexes previously overlooked in field-based . A key example is the 2023 phylogenetic reassessment of Conocybe section Pilosellae in , which utilized ITS and morphological to describe seven new species and reconcile longstanding taxonomic inconsistencies, expanding sectional diversity through clade-specific analyses. Similarly, 2025 studies from employed multilocus phylogenies (including ITS, LSU, and additional markers) to delineate novel lineages, such as Conocybe pakistanensis from , underscoring regional and the role of integrated approaches in uncovering hidden variation. Ongoing debates center on subgeneric delimitations, particularly the status of section , where proposals to elevate it to genus level stem from distinctive lecythiform cystidia and remnants, yet molecular phylogenies often support its retention as a Conocybe due to shared ITS-LSU clades with core Conocybe groups. These controversies illustrate the tension between micromorphological traits and genomic , with recent barcoding efforts favoring broader generic circumscriptions to accommodate polyphyletic sections revealed by divergence. Such revisions continue to differentiate Conocybe from pre-molecular era classifications reliant on spore shape and habitat alone, emphasizing causal links between genetic divergence and subtle ecological adaptations.

Morphology

Macroscopic characteristics

Species in the genus Conocybe exhibit small basidiocarps, with pilei generally 0.5–2 cm in diameter, initially conical to campanulate and often expanding slightly with maturity. The pileus is frequently hygrophanous, darkening when moist and paling upon drying, with margins typically striate from translucent radial grooves visible under hydration. Coloration varies across species but commonly spans pale buff, yellowish-tan, to various browns or reddish hues, with surfaces smooth to faintly fibrillose. Stipes measure 2–6 cm in length and 0.5–1.5 mm in thickness, arising centrally from the pileus, and are slender, fragile, and often hollow or fistulose. They lack a true annulus in most species, though membranous remnants of a may occur rarely. Lamellae are adnate to sinuate, close to crowded, with edges entire or minutely fimbriate; they start pallid or whitish and mature to cinnamon-brown as spores develop. The overall fruitbodies display high fragility, prone to rapid deliquescence or collapse in humid environments, aiding in field recognition but complicating collection.

Microscopic characteristics

The basidiospores of Conocybe species are smooth, to subcylindrical or occasionally sigmoid, typically measuring 6–13 × 4–7.5 µm, with a distinct truncate germ pore (1–2 µm wide) and hilar ; they are thick-walled (0.5–1 µm) and produce a rusty-brown spore deposit in mass. Variations in size and shape occur across sections, such as shorter, broader forms (e.g., 8.5–12 × 5–7 µm, Q=1.7) in some coprophilous taxa or more elongated ones (12–15 × 6.8–8.5 µm, Q=1.76) in others, but the presence of a prominent germ pore remains diagnostic for the . Basidia are clavate, predominantly 4-spored (occasionally 2- or 3-spored in certain species), measuring 15–25 × 6–9 µm, and arise from a trama of interwoven hyphae. The pileipellis is structured as a cutis of repent, cylindrical to slightly inflated hyphae, 3–12 µm in diameter, often with non-incrusted walls and lacking distinct pigmentation layers. Cystidia exhibit section-specific variation: cheilocystidia are frequently present on edges, appearing as flexuous, capitate, or lecythiform elements (20–50 × 5–10 µm), while pleurocystidia are generally absent or rare; caulocystidia may occur at the stipe apex in some taxa. A key diagnostic trait is the absence of chrysocystidia (refractive, thick-walled elements), which distinguishes Conocybe from related genera like Bolbitius, where such structures are common on faces. Clamp connections are typically absent on hyphae throughout the basidiomata.

Ecology and distribution

Habitat preferences

Conocybe species function primarily as saprotrophic fungi, deriving nutrients from decomposing in terrestrial environments. They thrive in substrates rich in decayed material, such as grasslands, lawns, roadsides, and forest floors, where they contribute to nutrient cycling by breaking down lignocellulosic compounds and . Many species exhibit a strong affinity for nitrogen-enriched substrates, including manured or base-rich soils, which support their rapid colonization and enzymatic activity on complex organic residues. Coprophilous habits are prevalent, with fructifications emerging directly on dung, while others are terricolous, colonizing disturbed soils, chips, or layers with elevated availability. This substrate specificity links to their morphology, as the fungi's delicate, evanescent basidiomata facilitate efficient dispersal in open, aerated microhabitats. Fructification is episodic, typically aligning with seasonal moisture pulses from spring through fall in temperate zones, where post-rainfall saturation triggers primordia formation and mycelial expansion. The lifecycle is abbreviated, with basidiomata maturing within days under conducive conditions of humidity and moderate temperatures, enabling quick exploitation of transient nutrient flushes before competitive exclusion or desiccation. This r-selected strategy underscores their ecological role in early-successional decomposition phases.

Global distribution

The genus Conocybe exhibits a , with over 270 species recorded across multiple continents. Its highest occurs in the temperate zones of the , particularly in , , and , where biogeographic factors such as historical dispersal and suitable climatic envelopes have supported extensive . In , at least 50 species are documented, reflecting dense sampling in and ecosystems. Extensions into subtropical and tropical regions are evident in , with recent taxonomic work uncovering endemics such as four new species from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in and Conocybe telasar from , both described in 2025. These findings highlight ongoing discoveries in understudied Asian highlands, potentially indicating localized driven by altitudinal gradients and isolation. Occurrences in the remain limited, with sparse records in (approximately five confirmed species) and , where diversity lags behind northern temperate areas despite occasional sightings of widespread taxa. Some species, including , appear to have been introduced to these regions via human-mediated dispersal, such as through international trade in agricultural products or , facilitating opportunistic establishment beyond native ranges.

Species diversity

Overview of species count and sections

The genus Conocybe encompasses an estimated 243 to 270 accepted worldwide, with figures varying due to ongoing taxonomic revisions and molecular phylogenetic analyses that resolve cryptic diversity among morphologically similar taxa. This range reflects databases and recent studies as of 2024, though higher counts including synonyms exceed 500 names, complicating precise enumeration. Infrageneric classification divides Conocybe into over 10 sections, primarily delineated by microscopic traits such as cystidia morphology (e.g., presence of candicystidia in sect. Candidae or pilocystidia in sect. Pilosellae) and spore ornamentation (e.g., phaseoliform or rugulose spores in sect. Phaeocephalis). Sections like Pilosellae, which feature species with pilose pilei and specific cheilocystidia, have received particular attention in recent Chinese surveys, revealing high regional . These groupings facilitate identification but underscore challenges in delimitation, as phylogenetic data increasingly reveal in traditional sections. Species estimation faces hurdles from extensive synonymy—arising from historical descriptions based solely on morphology—and undescribed cryptic lineages, particularly in understudied regions like and high-altitude plateaus. No comprehensive global monograph has superseded partial regional treatments from the , leaving gaps filled by piecemeal molecular studies. Recent integrations of morphology and multi-locus have accelerated discoveries, with at least seven new species described in 2025 alone from sites in and , exemplifying ongoing diversification.

Notable species including toxic and psychoactive examples

, the of the , is a widespread saprobic typically encountered in grassy habitats, featuring a small, fragile fruitbody with a conical to bell-shaped cap; it is generally regarded as innocuous but not recommended for consumption due to uncertainties in edibility and risks from similar-looking congeners. Conocybe filaris represents a highly dangerous toxic species, containing that inhibit , leading to potentially fatal liver and with symptoms delayed 6-24 hours post-ingestion. Conocybe apala, or milky conecap, is mildly poisonous, harboring phallotoxins that may cause gastrointestinal upset without lethality, often appearing in lawns and prompting avoidance due to the genus's variable toxicity profile. Psychoactive species within the include the rare Conocybe cyanopus, which produces at concentrations up to 0.90% dry weight, alongside trace , enabling hallucinogenic effects despite its diminutive, grass-dwelling habit. Conocybe smithii similarly contains and , conferring mild hallucinogenic properties, though its scarcity and identification challenges limit recognition. In 2025, Conocybe alticola was newly described from alpine and subalpine zones of China's Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, highlighting ongoing discoveries of high-elevation specialists that broaden the genus's ecological scope without noted toxicity. These examples illustrate Conocybe's diversity, from benign decomposers to potent hazards, emphasizing the need for precise identification to mitigate risks.

Biochemistry and secondary metabolites

Primary chemical composition

The cell walls of Conocybe species, like other basidiomycete fungi, primarily consist of , a β-1,4-linked of that provides structural integrity, alongside β-glucans such as β-(1→3)- and β-(1→6)-linked that contribute to rigidity and osmotic regulation. serves as the predominant in fungal membranes, accounting for up to 80-90% of total sterols in many mushroom species, functioning analogously to in animal cells for and permeability. Fruiting bodies of Conocybe contain (typically 26-82% of dry weight in related mushrooms), including storage forms like and , alongside proteins comprising essential that support fungal growth and enzymatic functions. Volatile organic compounds, such as eight-carbon derivatives including , predominate in the earthy or farinaceous odors characteristic of many Conocybe species, emitted during sporulation and decay processes. Cap pigments in Conocybe derive from melanins and related polyphenolic compounds, conferring the typical conical, brownish hues that aid in UV protection and ecological signaling. Nutritionally, Conocybe fruitbodies exhibit low caloric density (primarily from carbohydrates and minimal at 0.4-5.9% dry weight), with potentially offering properties through free radical scavenging, though empirical data remain limited due to the 's general inedibility.

Psychoactive compounds in select species

Several species within the Conocybe produce the psychoactive alkaloids and , which exert hallucinogenic effects through of serotonin 5-HT2A receptors. These compounds are present in approximately 5-10 species, with the for their occurring sporadically across the , in contrast to the more consistent presence in dedicated genera like . Conocybe cyanopus (synonym Pholiotina cyanopus) is the most documented species containing these compounds, with levels ranging from 0.33% to 1.01% of dry weight and from 0.004% to 0.17%, alongside minor amounts of related alkaloids such as and . Concentrations exhibit significant intraspecific variability, differing by up to a factor of seven across collections, influenced by factors including environmental conditions, specimen age, and genetic strain. Cultivated mycelia of C. cyanopus have yielded 0.25% by dry weight, underscoring lower and less stable production compared to species, which can reach up to 2.4%. Biosynthesis of in Conocybe proceeds via the pathway, where a conserved of four enzymes— decarboxylase, 4-hydroxytryptamine O-methyltransferase, 4-monooxygenase, and PsiM (a )—converts to , which is then phosphorylated to . This cluster shows homology to that in but has likely spread horizontally across fungal lineages, explaining its patchy distribution in Conocybe rather than vertical inheritance within the genus. Empirical analyses confirm enzymatic functionality in these species, though yields remain modest due to regulatory variability and substrate limitations under natural or lab conditions.

Toxic compounds and their effects

Certain species of Conocybe, notably C. filaris, produce such as , a bicyclic octapeptide that inhibits , thereby halting mRNA transcription and inducing primarily in hepatocytes and renal cells. This mechanism leads to severe and , with symptoms manifesting in a delayed fashion: initial gastrointestinal distress (, , ) 6–24 hours post-ingestion, followed by liver enzyme elevation, , and potential fulminant hepatic failure within 48–72 hours. The oral LD50 of is approximately 0.1 mg/kg in humans, rendering even small quantities (e.g., from a single cap of C. filaris) potentially lethal without prompt intervention like extracorporeal . No specific antidote exists; treatment relies on supportive measures including activated charcoal, , and , as exhibit enterohepatic recirculation and prolonged detectability in urine up to 72 hours. Analytical detection of in Conocybe specimens or biological fluids employs (HPLC) coupled with UV or , enabling quantification at ng/mL levels critical for forensic and clinical confirmation. While some Conocybe species may contain or related compounds inducing early-onset symptoms like salivation and , these are less documented and typically overshadowed by dominance in fatal cases.

Toxicity and edibility

Poisonous species and mechanisms

Conocybe filaris is among the most hazardous species in the genus, containing amatoxins that produce poisoning syndromes akin to those from Amanita phalloides. Ingestion leads to delayed gastrointestinal symptoms—nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and watery diarrhea—appearing 6 to 24 hours post-consumption, followed by apparent recovery and subsequent acute liver failure with elevated transaminases, coagulopathy, and potential hepatorenal syndrome. Without prompt supportive care, including activated charcoal, silibinin, or liver transplantation, amatoxin poisonings carry a 10-30% fatality rate due to hepatocellular necrosis. Documented human cases specifically attributable to C. filaris remain rare, with North American registries reporting few confirmed incidents amid broader amatoxin exposures, underscoring the toxin's lethality despite infrequent foraging encounters. Other Conocybe species, such as certain C. lactea variants, have tested positive for or phallotoxins, yielding similar clinical outcomes in experimental assays extrapolated to potential ingestions: initial enteric distress escalating to organ failure. Empirical data for these remain sparse, with overall Conocybe incidents comprising a minor fraction of toxicities—less than 1% of reported exposures—but characterized by high severity when occurring, often necessitating intensive care. No Conocybe species are verifiably , and mycological authorities advise universal avoidance owing to inconsistent distribution and misidentification risks, as edibility claims lack substantiation from controlled consumption trials. In veterinary contexts, Conocybe toxicities affect grazing animals like on contaminated pastures, manifesting as acute and hepatic insult, though case reports are anecdotal and outnumbered by exposures to more common genera like . Limited empirical data highlight low incidence but emphasize rapid progression to , , and death in untreated cases, mirroring human effects.

Risks of misidentification with edibles

Several species of Conocybe, particularly small, grassland-inhabiting ones like C. apala and C. tenera, pose risks of misidentification with edible mushrooms (), as both occur in lawns, meadows, and disturbed grassy areas, sharing compact sizes (caps often under 2 cm) and initially conical shapes. overlap in urban and suburban settings exacerbates this issue for inexperienced foragers, who may prioritize superficial traits like color and growth pattern over rigorous verification. Distinguishing features include spore print color—rusty-brown to cinnamon for Conocybe versus pure white for Marasmius oreades—and gill spacing, with Conocybe often featuring closer, more fragile gills that may develop greenish tints from spores. Mycological guidelines stress performing spore prints and noting habitat specifics, such as Conocybe's affinity for manure-enriched soils, but amateurs frequently bypass these steps, leading to erroneous collections. Further confusions arise with other small edibles like certain species (e.g., P. candolleana), which share fragile stems and pale caps but differ in spore color and ; Conocybe often grows on dung or wood debris, intersecting foraging zones. The genus's variability—exceeding 50 North American species, many inconspicuous—amplifies identification challenges, as field guides warn that gross morphology alone cannot rule out . Misidentification incidents contribute to a subset of U.S. poisonings, with Conocybe linked to cases requiring medical intervention, especially in reports where species are prevalent. Regional data from poison centers highlight that such errors often stem from casual lawn harvesting without expert consultation, prompting societies like the North American Mycological Association to advise against consuming unidentified little brown mushrooms.

United States regulations

Psilocybin and psilocin, the primary psychoactive compounds present in certain Conocybe species such as C. cyanopus and C. smithii, are classified as Schedule I controlled substances under the federal enacted in 1970. This designation deems them to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use in treatment in the , thereby prohibiting the possession, manufacture, distribution, importation, or cultivation of any fungi containing these substances, including relevant Conocybe species. The enforces these restrictions, with penalties for violations including up to 20 years imprisonment and fines up to $1 million for first offenses involving trafficking. State laws generally mirror or strengthen federal prohibitions. In , falls under Schedule I classification with enhanced penalties introduced in the early 2000s, treating possession as a punishable by fines up to $5,000 and mandatory minimum sentences of 10 years imprisonment. Cultivation or intent to distribute incurs even stricter sanctions, including up to 30 years at and fines reaching $500,000, reflecting the state's designation of hallucinogens as high-risk substances. further bans the sale and possession of spores from -producing mushrooms, encompassing Conocybe species, under provisions like State Act 159, which expanded controls beyond federal baselines. Research involving psilocybin-containing Conocybe requires a DEA registration for Schedule I handling, with no blanket exemptions for academic, therapeutic, or personal use; approvals are granted sparingly and demand rigorous protocols to mitigate abuse risks. Enforcement against Conocybe specifically remains infrequent due to the genus's rarity, small fruiting bodies, and challenges in field identification, though ensures uniform prohibition absent state , which has not occurred for these species as of October 2025.

International variations

Psilocybin and , the psychoactive compounds present in certain Conocybe species such as C. cyanopus, are classified under Schedule I of the 1971 , which mandates signatory nations to prohibit production, trade, and non-medical use except under strict licensing for scientific or therapeutic purposes. This framework underpins stringent controls across most countries, emphasizing enforcement against possession, cultivation, and distribution of psilocybin-containing fungi, with limited exceptions for regulated . In , implementations remain largely prohibitive; the , for instance, designates any fungus containing or its ester as a Class A controlled drug under the , subjecting offenses to penalties including up to 7 years for possession and life for supply. Comparable bans prevail across , where the aligns with Schedule I restrictions, treating mushrooms as highly controlled substances illegal for recreational or unlicensed use, though some nations like have begun permitting limited for under medical supervision as of 2025. In , enforcement is even more rigorous, with countries such as and imposing outright prohibitions on mushrooms, often resulting in fines, , or for possession. Emerging therapeutic allowances contrast with these baselines but do not extend broadly to Conocybe; , from July 1, 2023, authorizes select psychiatrists to prescribe for and via the Therapeutic Goods Administration's Schedule 8 reclassification, yet this applies to the isolated substance in controlled settings, excluding raw mushrooms or genera like Conocybe due to unapproved formulations and ongoing harvest bans. The relative obscurity and infrequent potency of psilocybin-yielding Conocybe curtail international trafficking concerns, shifting regulatory focus to prohibitions on wild and personal cultivation, where enforcement realities—driven by UN obligations—prioritize deterrence over trends observed elsewhere.

Research and cultivation

Historical and recent scientific studies

The genus Conocybe was established by Victor Fayod in 1889 based on morphological characteristics of saprotrophic species, marking the initial taxonomic framework for the group within the Bolbitiaceae family. Early 20th-century studies emphasized spore morphology, preferences, and microscopic features, with Robert Kühner proposing subsections like Pilosellae in 1935 to classify species with pilose pilei. Roy Watling contributed extensively through morphological monographs and observations on developmental traits, such as annulate and volvate species, in works spanning the 1970s and 1980s, including detailed comparisons of sizes and habitat associations across European taxa. The transition to molecular methods began in the , integrating phylogenetic analyses to refine infrageneric divisions previously reliant on classical morphology, though comprehensive phylogenomic datasets for Conocybe lagged behind related genera like . Recent studies have employed multi-locus approaches, combining ITS, nrLSU, and tef1-α sequences to resolve cryptic diversity and sectional boundaries. In 2023, a phylogenetic and morphological reconciliation of Conocybe section Pilosellae in identified 17 , including seven new ones, highlighting discrepancies between traditional morphology and molecular clades while confirming the section's within the genus. Building on this, 2025 research from Province, , described three additional new and a new record in the same section using ITS-nrLSU-tef1-α phylogenies, underscoring regional in northeastern . Concurrently, multi-locus analyses from southern , revealed three novel nested in section Conocybe, emphasizing morphological traits like ornamentation alongside genetic data for delimitation. A separate 2025 study from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, , documented four new —including C. yadongensis—via morphology and molecular phylogeny, expanding known diversity in high-altitude habitats. Despite these advances, genomic investigations into Conocybe remain sparse, with limited integration of full-genome sequencing to elucidate saprotrophic mechanisms or substrate specificity. Potential applications in , leveraging the genus's lignocellulolytic capabilities, have been underexplored relative to other basidiomycetes.

Cultivation challenges and methods

Conocybe species, primarily saprotrophic and often coprophilous, demand sterile substrates like pasteurized horse dung, enriched (e.g., milo), or mixed with decaying such as grass clippings or leaf litter to mimic natural habitats. Cultivation typically involves monotub setups or all-in-one grow bags, with under sterile conditions followed by incubation at 20-24°C and fruiting under high (90-95%) with indirect light cycles of 12 hours daily. Key challenges include pronounced sensitivity to , requiring rigorous sterile technique, and slow colonization phases lasting 2-3 weeks on grain substrates before bulk expansion (1-2 additional weeks). Fruiting bodies exhibit delicate structures prone to deformation from minor moisture imbalances or air exchange variations, often resulting in low yields and unconventional sporulation patterns. Pure culture fructification remains elusive for annulate subgroups like , with developmental studies historically dependent on field primordia due to cultivation failures. Psychoactive taxa, such as Conocybe smithii or cyanopus, amplify these issues through unproven protocols and non-bluing that resists standard , as evidenced by the first reported mycelial cultivation of C. cyanopus in after prior unsuccessful attempts. Unlike robust species amenable to commercial scaling, Conocybe's short shelf-life post-harvest and expert-level demands preclude economic viability, favoring wild over controlled growth despite associated identification hazards. Empirical accounts underscore persistent low success rates for these strains, attributing failures to habitat specificity and environmental fragility.

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