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Conjunction (grammar)
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In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses, which are called its conjuncts. That description is vague enough to overlap with those of other parts of speech because what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In English, a given word may have several senses and in some contexts be a preposition but a conjunction in others, depending on the syntax. For example, after is a preposition in "he left after the fight" but a conjunction in "he left after they fought".

In general, a conjunction is an invariant (non-inflecting) grammatical particle that stands between conjuncts. A conjunction may be placed at the beginning of a sentence,[1] but some superstition about the practice persists.[2] The definition may be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit and perform the same function, e.g. "as well as", "provided that".

A simple literary example of a conjunction is "the truth of nature, and the power of giving interest" (Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria).[3]

Separation of clauses

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Commas are often used to separate clauses. In English, a comma is used to separate a dependent clause from the independent clause if the dependent clause comes first: After I fed the cat, I brushed my clothes. (Compare this with I brushed my clothes after I fed the cat.) A relative clause takes commas if it is non-restrictive, as in I cut down all the trees, which were over six feet tall. (Without the comma, this would mean that only the trees more than six feet tall were cut down.) Some style guides prescribe that two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) must be separated by a comma placed before the conjunction.[4][5] In the following sentences, where the second clause is independent (because it can stand alone as a sentence), the comma is considered by those guides to be necessary:

  • Mary walked to the party, but she was unable to walk home.
  • Designer clothes are silly, and I can't afford them anyway.
  • Don't push that button, or twelve tons of high explosives will go off right under our feet!

In the following sentences, where the second half of the sentence is not an independent clause (because it does not contain an explicit subject), those guides prescribe that the comma be omitted:

  • Mary walked to the party but was unable to walk home.
  • I think designer clothes are silly and can't afford them anyway.

However, such guides permit the comma to be omitted if the second independent clause is very short, typically when the second independent clause is an imperative,[4][5] as in:

  • Sit down and shut up.

The above guidance is not universally accepted or applied. Long coordinate clauses are nonetheless usually separated by commas:[6]

  • She had very little to live on, but she would never have dreamed of taking what was not hers.

A comma between clauses may change the connotation, reducing or eliminating ambiguity. In the following examples, the thing in the first sentence that is very relaxing is the cool day, whereas in the second sentence it is the walk, since the introduction of commas makes "on a cool day" parenthetical:

They took a walk on a cool day that was very relaxing.
They took a walk, on a cool day, that was very relaxing.

If another prepositional phrase is introduced, ambiguity increases, but when commas separate each clause and phrase, the restrictive clause can remain a modifier of the walk:

They took a walk in the park on a cool day that was very relaxing.
They took a walk, in the park, on a cool day, that was very relaxing.

In some languages, such as German and Polish, stricter rules apply on comma use between clauses, with dependent clauses always being set off with commas, and commas being generally proscribed before certain coordinating conjunctions.

The joining of two independent sentences with a comma and no conjunction (as in "It is nearly half past five, we cannot reach town before dark.") is known as a comma splice and is sometimes considered an error in English;[7] in most cases a semicolon should be used instead. A comma splice should not be confused, though, with the literary device called asyndeton, in which coordinating conjunctions are purposely omitted for a specific stylistic effect.

Etymology

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Beginning in the 17th century, an element of a conjunction was known as a conjunct.[8] A conjunction itself was then called a connective.[9] That archaic term, however, diminished in usage during the early 20th century.[10] In its place, the terms coordinating conjunction (coined in the mid-19th century) and correlative conjunction (coined in the early 19th century) became more commonly used.[11][12]

Coordinating conjunctions

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Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join, or coordinate, two or more items (such as words, main clauses, or sentences) of equal syntactic importance. In English, the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the most commonly used coordinators: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.[13] These are not the only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including: "and nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "neither" ("They don't gamble, neither do they smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble, no more do they smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have time").[14]: ch. 9 [15]: p. 171  Types of coordinating conjunctions include cumulative conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, alternative conjunctions, and illative conjunctions.[16]

Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do:

  • For – an illative (i.e. inferential), presents rationale ("They do not gamble or smoke, for they are ascetics.")
  • And – a cumulative, adds non-contrasting items or ideas ("They gamble, and they smoke.")
  • Nor – presents an alternative non-contrasting (also negative) idea ("They do not gamble, nor do they smoke.")
  • But – an adversative, presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.")
  • Or – presents an alternative non-contrasting item or idea ("Every day they gamble, or they smoke.")
  • Yet – an adversative, presents a strong contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.")
  • So – an illative (i.e. inferential), presents a consequence ("He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.")

Only and, or, nor are actual coordinating logical operators connecting atomic propositions or syntactic multiple units of the same type (subject, objects, predicative, attributive expressions, etc.) within a sentence. The cause and consequence (illative) conjunctions are pseudo-coordinators, being expressible as antecedent or consequent to logical implications or grammatically as subordinate conditional clauses.

Correlative conjunctions

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Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions within a syntax that aggregates or contrasts correlated actions, characteristics, or items in the manner of:[17]

1. The use of whether paired with or, as well as if paired with then as conditional conjunctions, e.g. -

  • "Vegetables are nutritious whether you love them or you hate them."
  • "If you can't afford it, then don't buy it."

2. A nominal phrase headed by a negating determiner paired with an ensuing nominal phrase headed by nor, e.g., "The suites convey neither corporate coldness nor warmth."

3. An adjective (or adjectival phrase) or an adverb (or an adverbial phrase) paired with an ensuing conjunction, e.g. -

  • "Successes that are as scattered as they are rare."
  • "He ran both far and fast."
  • "She's either a singer or an actress."
  • "A puppy that's not only cute but also smart."
  • "Neither the caller’s name nor the number was visible."
  • "Just as we left, so we also decided never to return."
  • "There are as many dogs as there are cats."
  • "No sooner had we received the call than we left the house."
  • "I'd rather flee than fight."
  • "It's not a frog but rather a tadpole."

Conjunctions of time

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Examples:

after We'll do that after you do this.
as long as That's fine as long as you agree to our conditions.
as soon as We'll get to that as soon as we finish this.
by the time He had left by the time you arrived.
long before We'll be gone long before you arrive.
now that We can get going now that they have left.
once We'll have less to worry about once the boss leaves.
since We haven't been able to upload our work since the network went down.
till Please hold on till the server reboots.
until We are waiting until you send us the confirmation.
when They can do what they want when they want.
whenever There is a good chance of rain whenever there are clouds in the sky.
while I really appreciate you waiting while I finish up.

Subordinating conjunctions

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See also: Conjunctive adverb

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce content, relative, and adverbial clauses as subordinate ones, and join them to other clauses, whether independent or dependent. The most common subordinating conjunctions in English include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while.[18]

A complementizer is a subordinating conjunction that introduces a content clause (that is, a clause that is a complement of the verb phrase, instead of the more typical nominal subject or object): e.g. "I wonder whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time". Some subordinating conjunctions, when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings.

Relativizers are subordinators that introduce relative clauses.

The subordinating conjunction performs two important functions within a sentence: marking the higher rank of the independent clause and transiting between the two clauses’ ideas by indicating the nexus of time, place, or cause. Subordinators therefore structure the relationship between the clauses.[19]

In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either

Such languages often lack conjunctions as a part of speech, because:

  • the form of the verb used is formally nominalised and cannot occur in an independent clause
  • the clause-final conjunction or suffix attached to the verb is a marker of case and is also used in nouns to indicate certain functions. In this sense, the subordinate clauses of these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases.

In other West Germanic languages like German and Dutch, the word order after a subordinating conjunction is different from that in an independent clause, e.g. in Dutch want ('for') is coordinating, but omdat ('because') is subordinating. The clause after the coordinating conjunction has normal word order, but the clause after the subordinating conjunction has verb-final word order. Compare:

Hij gaat naar huis, want hij is ziek. ('He goes home, for he is ill.')
Hij gaat naar huis, omdat hij ziek is. ('He goes home, because he is ill.')

Similarly, in German, denn ('for') is coordinating, but weil ('because') is subordinating:

Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank. ('He goes home, for he is ill.')
Er geht nach Hause, weil er krank ist. ('He goes home, because he is ill.')

Starting a sentence

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See also: English usage controversies

It is now generally agreed that a sentence may begin with a coordinating conjunction like and,[21] but,[22] or yet.[23] While some people consider this usage improper, Follett's Modern American Usage labels its prohibition a "supposed rule without foundation" and a "prejudice [that] lingers from a bygone time."[24]

Some associate this belief with their early school days. One conjecture is that it results from young children's being taught to avoid simple sentences starting with and and are encouraged to use more complex structures with subordinating conjunctions.[21] In the words of Bryan A. Garner, the "widespread belief ... that it is an error to begin a sentence with a conjunction such as and, but, or so has no historical or grammatical foundation",[25] and good writers have frequently started sentences with conjunctions.[24]

There is also a misleading guideline that a sentence should never begin with because. Because is a subordinating conjunction and introduces a dependent clause. It may start a sentence when the main clause follows the dependent clause.[26]

Examples

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  • "And now we have Facebook and Twitter and Wordpress and Tumblr and all those other platforms that take our daily doings and transform them into media."[27]
  • "So any modern editor who is not paranoid is a fool".[28]
  • "And strikes are protected globally, existing in many of the countries with labour laws outside the Wagner Act model."[29]

See also

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Look up Category:Conjunctions by language in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Conjunction (grammar)

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In , a conjunction is a that connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences, establishing specific semantic relationships between the linked elements, such as addition, contrast, or causation. These function words belong to a closed class, meaning they form a limited set with little morphological variation, and they play a crucial role in by enabling the construction of compound and complex sentences. Conjunctions are broadly classified into three main types based on their syntactic function and the equality of the elements they connect. Coordinating conjunctions link grammatically equivalent structures, such as independent clauses or words of the same category, using words like and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet (often remembered by the acronym FANBOYS); for example, "She ran quickly, but he walked slowly." Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, indicating relationships like time, condition, or reason, with examples including because, although, if, when, and while; they create hierarchical structures, as in "We stayed inside because it was raining." Correlative conjunctions, which always appear in pairs, reinforce these connections for emphasis or balance, such as either...or, neither...nor, both...and, and not only...but also; for instance, "Neither the cat nor the dog wanted to go outside." Beyond these core types, linguistic analysis sometimes distinguishes conjunctive adverbs (e.g., however, therefore, moreover), which connect independent clauses but function adverbially rather than as true conjunctions, often requiring a for proper . In broader linguistic theory, conjunctions contribute to coherence by encoding logical operators akin to those in formal semantics, influencing how meaning is composed in . Their usage varies across languages and registers, but in English, they are fundamental to clear and varied expression.

Fundamentals

Definition and Function

In , a conjunction is a that serves as a to connect words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence, establishing specific semantic relations between the linked elements. For instance, a conjunction like "and" can link two nouns of equal status, such as "cats and dogs," or join independent clauses to form a coherent structure. This connective role ensures syntactic unity, preventing disjointed or incomplete expressions. The primary functions of conjunctions include coordination, which links elements of equal grammatical rank, such as independent clauses in a compound sentence; subordination, which connects a to a main clause to indicate relationships like cause or condition; and , which pairs elements for emphasis or balance, as in "both...and." These functions allow conjunctions to build complex while maintaining clarity and logical flow. Conjunctions originated in classical Graeco-Roman grammar as one of the eight traditional parts of speech, where they were defined as elements that bind thoughts and clarify interpretive gaps between syntactic units. In this framework, they played a crucial role in organizing discourse, much like their modern use in avoiding run-on sentences—where independent clauses fuse without proper linkage—or sentence fragments, by properly integrating subordinate elements. Through conjunctions, sentences evolve from simple structures (containing one independent clause) to compound (two or more independent clauses), complex (one independent and at least one dependent clause), and compound-complex forms, enabling nuanced expression in language.

Etymology

The term "conjunction" in derives from the Latin coniunctio, meaning "a joining together" or "union," which is a noun of action formed from the prefix con- ("together") and the verb iungere ("to join," ultimately from the yeug- "to join"). This etymon entered in the late 14th century as conjunction, borrowed via conjunction, initially denoting a general act of joining before specializing to its grammatical sense. The concept of conjunctions as a originated in , where the scholar , in his Tékhnē grammatikḗ (Art of Grammar) around 100 BCE, classified syndesmoi (σύνδεσμοι, "binders" or "connectors") as one of eight parts of speech, describing them as "indeclinable words that bind together the parts of a sentence to make the meaning clear." This Greek framework was adapted in Roman grammar by scholars like in the 6th century CE, who used coniunctio to translate the term, formalizing it within Latin pedagogical texts. The English grammatical usage of "conjunction" emerged through 14th-century translations and adaptations of these Latin works, such as those influenced by medieval , marking the term's integration into vernacular grammar traditions. Over time, the classification of conjunctions evolved from the rigid eight-part system of —where they were broadly seen as fillers of "hiatuses" in —to a more refined category in modern , which distinguishes them from quasi-connective elements like prepositions, adverbs, or relative pronouns based on their syntactic independence and role in linkage. This shift reflects broader developments in descriptive , emphasizing functional and distributional criteria over morphological ones. Cross-linguistically, cognate terms in other underscore this shared classical heritage; for instance, the French conjonction is directly borrowed from Latin coniunctio ("union"), entering around the 12th century and retaining the sense of grammatical linkage in modern usage. Such parallels highlight the enduring influence of Latin grammatical across Romance and Germanic traditions.

Coordinating and Correlative Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank, joining elements without creating a hierarchical relationship between them. In English, the primary coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so, often remembered using the FANBOYS. These conjunctions form compound structures, such as compound sentences or parallel phrases, and do not introduce dependent clauses. Syntactically, coordinating conjunctions are placed between the elements they connect, such as in "I run and you walk" to link two parallel verbs or subjects. When joining two independent clauses, a typically precedes the conjunction to separate them clearly, as in "She studied hard, but she failed the test." No comma is needed when connecting shorter elements like words or phrases within a single clause, for example, " and ." Coordinating conjunctions serve specific functions based on their semantic role. The additive function, conveyed by and, combines ideas to show addition or continuation, as in "I like tea and coffee." Adversative conjunctions like but and yet express contrast or opposition, for instance, "Ram likes tea, but Anthony likes coffee." Disjunctive types, or and nor, indicate alternatives or negation, such as "She can go, or she can stay" or "He doesn't like tea, nor does he like coffee." Illative conjunctions for and so denote reason, explanation, or consequence; for provides a causal explanation ("We left early, for the roads were icy"), while so shows result ("I wanted to attend, so I studied hard").

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are paired coordinating conjunctions that function together to link grammatically equivalent elements, such as words, phrases, or clauses, within a sentence. They emphasize balance and equality between the connected parts, often adding to expression compared to single coordinating conjunctions. Common pairs include both…and, either…or, neither…nor, , and whether…or, each conveying specific relationships like addition (both…and), choice (either…or or whether…or), exclusion (neither…nor), or contrast with addition (). A defining characteristic of correlative conjunctions is their requirement for , ensuring that the elements joined by each part of the pair match in grammatical form, such as with or with . This parallelism maintains clarity and rhythm; for example, "The committee will either approve the proposal or reject it outright" uses parallel verb phrases after either and or. Mismatches, like "The committee will either approve the proposal or it is rejected," disrupt this balance and can lead to ungrammaticality. Syntactically, the pairs must be evenly distributed, with the first correlative preceding the initial element and the second preceding the corresponding one, to avoid or misplaced modifiers. In formal usage, fronted pairs like often trigger subject-verb inversion for emphasis, as in "Not only does the policy affect employees, but it also impacts suppliers." Correlative conjunctions also present challenges in agreement rules, particularly for subject- and -antecedent concordance. With either…or and neither…nor, the and any subsequent typically agree with the nearest subject, as in "Neither the dogs nor is available for ," where singular agreement follows cat. This proximity rule can cause issues in longer constructions, requiring careful placement to ensure logical consistency. These pairs enhance stylistic effects by stressing alternatives, promoting inclusivity, or building rhythmic flow, making them prevalent in formal, academic, and . Representative examples illustrate their application:
  • Both…and (addition): "Both artists and musicians attended the gala."
  • Either…or (choice): "Either you attend the meeting, or you submit a in advance."
  • Neither…nor (exclusion): "Neither rain nor snow delayed the delivery."
  • Not only…but also (contrast and addition): "Not only is the design innovative, but it is also cost-effective."
  • Whether…or (alternative): "Whether we succeed or fail depends on preparation."
Correlative conjunctions extend the connective role of basic coordinating conjunctions by introducing paired emphasis for more precise logical relations.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Characteristics and Classification

Subordinating conjunctions are words or phrases that introduce a dependent clause, which attaches to an independent (main) clause to form a complex sentence. Common examples include single words such as because, although, if, and while, as well as phrases like as long as or in order that. These elements link the dependent clause to the main clause, ensuring the former relies on the latter for complete meaning. A key characteristic of subordinating conjunctions is their role in creating dependency: the they introduce contains a subject and but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence, unlike independent clauses. They signal specific logical or relational connections between clauses, such as causation (because indicates reason), concession (although shows contrast despite expectation), or condition (if posits a hypothetical ). This dependency fosters hierarchical sentence structures, enabling nuanced expression of ideas in complex sentences. In contrast to coordinating conjunctions, which join clauses of equal grammatical status, subordinating conjunctions impose inequality, subordinating one to another and altering the overall syntactic balance. Classification of subordinating conjunctions typically occurs along two primary axes: semantic role and formal structure. Semantically, they are grouped by the type of relationship they express, including causal (e.g., because, since), concessive (e.g., although, even though), and conditional (e.g., if, unless). This categorization reflects how they encode interpretive links, drawing from logical relations in semantics. Formally, they vary between single-word forms (e.g., if) and multi-word phrases (e.g., provided that, as long as), with the latter often amplifying the relational nuance. These systems aid in understanding their functional diversity without exhaustive listing. Syntactically, subordinating conjunctions exhibit positional flexibility: the dependent clause may precede or follow the main clause. When placed first, as in "Although it rained, we went ," a follows the dependent clause to mark the boundary and improve . In reversed order, such as "We went although it rained," no is needed between the s. These rules ensure clarity in hierarchy and prevent run-on structures.

Conjunctions of Time and Place

Subordinating conjunctions of time, also known as temporal conjunctions, link a to an to express relationships of sequence, duration, or simultaneity. Common temporal conjunctions in English include after, before, when, while, until, since, once, as, and as soon as. These words introduce clauses that provide temporal context to the main action, often appearing in and descriptive writing to clarify the order or overlap of events. These conjunctions function adverbially, modifying the in the main by specifying when or for how long the action occurs. For instance, in "She called me as soon as she arrived," the "as soon as she arrived" indicates immediacy following the dependent event. Syntactically, temporal clauses require careful tense agreement to convey sequence: the subordinate often uses the tense to refer to future events relative to the main , as in "I will leave before you arrive," avoiding in the dependent to maintain clarity. Punctuation rules dictate a comma after an introductory temporal , such as "While it was raining, we stayed indoors," but no when the main precedes, like "We stayed indoors while it was raining." Subordinating conjunctions of place, or spatial conjunctions, connect clauses to denote , direction, or situational . The primary examples are where and wherever, which introduce dependent specifying the site of the action in the main clause. For example, "They met where the old bridge once stood" uses where to identify a precise , while "I'll follow you wherever you go" employs wherever to indicate any possible place. Like temporal conjunctions, spatial ones create adverbial and are prevalent in instructional or descriptive to establish setting. Punctuation follows similar patterns: a separates an initial spatial clause, as in "Wherever she travels, she takes her journal," but is typically omitted otherwise. In modern , certain temporal conjunctions like as soon as are examined as aspectual, highlighting the immediate onset or completion of an action relative to another, distinct from broader sequential markers. This underscores their in fine-tuning temporal aspect within clause linkage.

Usage and Syntax

Connecting Clauses

Conjunctions serve as essential syntactic tools for linking s within a sentence, thereby preventing sentence fragments and ensuring grammatical completeness. By binding independent clauses—those that can stand alone as complete —with other clauses, conjunctions create more complex structures that convey nuanced relationships between ideas. For instance, coordinating conjunctions join two independent clauses to form compound , such as "She studied hard, but she still felt unprepared," where the conjunction "but" indicates contrast without leaving either clause isolated. This linkage not only avoids fragments but also determines sentence complexity; coordinating conjunctions promote parity between clauses, while subordinating conjunctions introduce dependency, embedding one clause within another to form complex like "Although it rained, we went ". The syntactic mechanisms governing conjunction use include specific rules that maintain clarity and prevent . In coordination, a typically precedes the coordinating conjunction when joining two independent s, as in "The team practiced daily, and they won the championship," to signal the transition without fusing the clauses improperly. For subordination, varies by order: no is needed if the independent precedes the dependent one, such as "He left because the meeting ended early," but a follows an introductory dependent , as in "Because the meeting ended early, he left". These rules apply to connections between independent-independent s via coordination and independent-dependent s via subordination, ensuring the sentence's structural integrity. Common errors arise when these mechanisms are overlooked, leading to run-on sentences or comma splices that disrupt readability. A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined without a conjunction or proper , such as "The alarm rang we jumped out of bed," which fails to link the clauses cohesively and creates a fused structure. Similarly, a comma splice results from using only a to connect independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction, as in "The alarm rang, we jumped out of bed," treating unequal elements as if coordinated. Correcting these involves inserting the appropriate conjunction and to bind the clauses properly. Beyond isolated sentences, conjunctions contribute to discourse flow by signaling logical progression across paragraphs, enhancing cohesion in extended text. Coordinating conjunctions like "and" denote addition, building cumulative ideas, while "but" highlights contrast to pivot arguments, as seen in sequences where "The policy succeeded in urban areas, but rural implementation lagged". Subordinating conjunctions further this by establishing cause-effect or temporal relations, such as "since" for reasoning, which guides readers through the text's argumentative structure. This discourse-level integration extends clause linkage to broader narrative or expository coherence, facilitating smooth transitions in written communication.

Starting Sentences with Conjunctions

The practice of beginning sentences with conjunctions has been a subject of historical debate in instruction. In the , some schoolteachers discouraged it, viewing the frequent use of coordinating conjunctions like "and" or "but" at the start of sentences by young students as a sign of incomplete thoughts or poor structuring, leading to a prescriptive rule against it in formal writing. This stance persisted into early 20th-century style guides but began to evolve as linguists and writers recognized its prevalence in classical , such as in the works of Chaucer, where 10-20% of sentences often started with conjunctions for natural flow. Grammatically, starting an with a coordinating conjunction is valid in English, as these words—"and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," and "yet"—function to connect ideas without requiring a preceding in the same sentence, though this usage is more common in informal or conversational contexts. Subordinating conjunctions, such as "because" or "although," are less frequently used sentence-initially, as they typically introduce dependent clauses that imply a connection to a prior idea, potentially creating fragments if standalone. Modern linguistic analysis confirms that this construction does not violate core syntax rules, debunking the notion of it being inherently incorrect. Stylistically, sentence-initial conjunctions enhance rhetorical effect by building , emphasizing contrast, or mimicking spoken , making them prevalent in and . For instance, "Yet, she persisted" exemplifies how "yet" can underscore resilience and draw attention in or . In , the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook explicitly permits it for clarity and impact, advising against overuse to maintain professionalism. Similarly, in , it enriches character voices or pacing without disrupting . Key rules and caveats include avoiding this technique in formal unless it serves a deliberate stylistic purpose, such as varying sentence , to prevent perceptions of informality. No is needed immediately after the initial conjunction, as it introduces a full rather than joining elements within one. endorses its use only when it yields clearer or more effective than alternatives, reflecting a broader 20th- and 21st-century shift toward flexibility in authoritative guides like MLA and AP.

Common Examples Across Types

Coordinating conjunctions, such as and, but, or, yet, for, nor, and so, link elements of equal grammatical status, often joining independent clauses or words within a phrase. For instance, in the sentence "The cat slept, yet the dog barked," yet connects two contrasting independent clauses to highlight opposition. Similarly, "She wanted to attend the concert, but it rained heavily" uses but to show contrast between desire and reality. These examples illustrate simple pairs in everyday discourse, where the conjunction maintains balance without subordinating one idea to another. Correlative conjunctions function in pairs to connect balanced structures, emphasizing equivalence or , as in "Both rain and snow fell during the storm," where both...and links two parallel subjects. Another example is "Either you study now, or you will regret it later," using either...or to present alternatives in a complex sentence. Subordinating conjunctions, by contrast, introduce dependent that modify the main clause, such as "Although it rained, we went out anyway," where although signals concession and subordinates the weather condition to the action. In varied contexts like discourse chains, these can build extended narratives: "We arrived early, so we secured seats, but the show started late." Specific subordinating conjunctions of time and place provide spatial or temporal context, enhancing sentence cohesion. For example, "We met where the paths crossed" employs where to indicate location, subordinating the to the main action. Likewise, "He called after dinner ended" uses after to denote sequence, creating a temporal link in a simple sentence. These examples demonstrate how such conjunctions clarify relationships in complex structures, such as "She waited until the train arrived, then boarded quickly." Examples across types hold pedagogical value by clarifying functional roles in grammar instruction, allowing learners to practice clause integration and avoid over-reliance on simple sentences. In teaching, sentences like "Not only did she finish the project, but she also improved it" (correlative) help students grasp emphasis, while varying contexts—from pairs to chains—builds fluency. A common pitfall is mismatched parallelism, where elements joined by conjunctions lack grammatical consistency, as in the faulty "The candidate’s goals include winning the election, a national health program, and the ," which should be revised to "winning the election, enacting a national health program, and improving the " for equal structure. Cross-type comparisons highlight universality, with parallels in other languages like Spanish, where the coordinating conjunction y (and) functions similarly to English and, as in "Voy a comprar vegetales y haré la cena hoy" (I am going to buy vegetables and make dinner today). Subordinating examples in Spanish, such as después de que (after), mirror English temporal uses: "Llamó después de que terminó la cena" (He called after dinner ended). These non-English illustrations underscore shared syntactic principles, aiding multilingual learners in recognizing conjunctions' connective roles beyond English.

References

  1. https://www.scribbr.com/parts-of-speech/conjunctions/
  2. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/parts-of-speech/conjunctions/
  3. https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/grammar/conjunctions.html
  4. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0207.xml
  5. https://www.[merriam-webster](/page/Merriam-Webster).com/dictionary/conjunction
  6. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226191294-046/html
  7. https://academic.oup.com/book/36516/chapter/321256238
  8. https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/grammar/run_ons.html
  9. https://www.etymonline.com/word/conjunction
  10. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conjunction
  11. https://www.lalanguefrancaise.com/dictionnaire/definition/conjonction
  12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25665891
  13. https://blogs.illinois.edu/view/8885/267231754
  14. https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/conjonction
  15. https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/conjonction
  16. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/parts-of-speech/coordinating-conjunctions/
  17. https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions-coordinating.htm
  18. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/punctuation/independent_and_dependent_clauses/index.html
  19. https://www.montgomerycollege.edu/_documents/academics/support/learning-centers/writing-reading-learning-ctr-rockville/student-resources-tech/conjunctions.pdf
  20. https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/grammar/parts_of_speech.html
  21. https://collegeofsanmateo.edu/writing/tutorials/18_SD_Correlatives_Final.pdf
  22. https://www.kellogg.edu/upload/eng151text/chapter/text-conjunctions/index.html
  23. https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/grammar/parallelism.html
  24. https://do-server1.sfs.uwm.edu/list/79R031008Q/pub/93R344Q/parallel-structure_with_correlative_conjunctions.pdf
  25. https://www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/Subordinating%20Conjunctions.pdf
  26. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/conjunctions-time
  27. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/parts-of-speech/subordinating-conjunctions/
  28. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/where
  29. https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/bitstreams/4841a51a-f270-4295-a206-d0eecda181d4/download
  30. https://owl.excelsior.edu/grammar-essentials/parts-of-speech/conjunctions/subordinating-conjunctions/
  31. https://valenciacollege.edu/students/learning-support/osceola/labs/documents/AbbiePotterHenry-Clausesandhowtoconnectthem.pdf
  32. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/punctuation/independent_and_dependent_clauses/runonsentences.html
  33. https://marymount.edu/academics/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2021/08/Grammar-for-Academic-Writing.pdf
  34. https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/conjunctions
  35. https://www.londondesignworks.com/blog/and-never-start-sentence-conjunction
  36. https://academic.oup.com/book/55355/chapter/430402906
  37. https://lawprose.org/lawprose-lesson-180-conjunctions-as-sentence-starters-2/
  38. https://style.mla.org/conjunction-at-start-of-sentence/
  39. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/sentences/starting-a-sentence-with-a-conjunction/
  40. https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/myth-dont-start-a-sentence-with-a-coordinating-conjunction/
  41. https://www.servicescape.com/blog/so-can-you-begin-a-sentence-with-a-conjunction
  42. https://albanyherald.com/features/breaking-the-rules-starting-sentences-with-conjunctions/
  43. https://www.louiseharnbyproofreader.com/blog/fiction-grammar-is-it-okay-to-start-a-sentence-with-and-or-but
  44. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/punctuation/commas/extended_rules_for_commas.html
  45. https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Usage/faq0013.html
  46. https://www.tckpublishing.com/starting-sentences-with-conjunctions/
  47. https://www.monmouth.edu/resources-for-writers/documents/conjunctions.pdf/
  48. https://www.regent.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Regent-University-Writing-Lab-ELL-ESL-Conjunctions.pdf/
  49. https://success.catholic.edu/academic-support/writing-center/coordination-subordination-handout.pdf/
  50. https://www.brazosport.edu/wcblog/posts/conjuctions.php
  51. https://www.iwu.edu/writing-center/student-resources/cordandsubordconjunctions.pdf
  52. https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2019/10/02/simple-truth-about-connectors/
  53. https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/commonerrors/
  54. https://grammar.spanishintexas.org/conjunctions/introduction-to-conjunctions/
  55. https://mangolanguages.com/resources/learn/grammar/spanish/how-to-use-conjunctions-in-spanish
  56. https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/spanish-conjunctions
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