Hubbry Logo
White-winged choughWhite-winged choughMain
Open search
White-winged chough
Community hub
White-winged chough
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
White-winged chough
White-winged chough
White-winged chough
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

White-winged chough
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Corcoracidae
Genus: Corcorax
Lesson, 1831
Species:
C. melanorhamphos
Binomial name
Corcorax melanorhamphos
(Vieillot, 1817)

The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) is one of only two surviving species of the Australian mud-nest builders family, Corcoracidae, and is the only member of the genus Corcorax. It is native to southern and eastern Australia and is an example of convergent evolution as it is only distantly related to the European choughs that it closely resembles in shape, and for which it was named.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The white-winged chough was first described by French naturalist Louis Pierre Vieillot in 1817 as Coracia melanorhamphos,[2] other names given include Pyrrhocorax leucopterus by Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1820,[3] and Corcorax australis by French naturalist René Lesson in 1830.[4] before the current name was settled by Gregory Mathews in 1912.[5] The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words melano- 'black' and rhamphos 'beak'.[6]

It is placed in the family known as the mud-nest builders or Corcoracidae, written as Grallinidae in older books before the removal of the genus Grallina to the family Monarchidae.[7] It is one of two remaining species, with the apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea), which differs in appearance but exhibits many behavioural similarities.[7] The mudnest builder family Corcoracidae itself is now placed in a narrower 'Core corvine' group, which contains the crows and ravens, shrikes, birds of paradise, fantails, monarch flycatchers, and drongos.[8]

It is only distantly related to the red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) and Alpine chough (P. graculus), which are members of the crow family Corvidae. The similarities in appearance of dark plumage and downturned bill are the result of convergent evolution.

Description

[edit]
Landing on a branch in Brisbane Ranges National Park, Australia

White-winged choughs are easily recognised but often mistaken for "crows" (such as the Australian raven). The white-winged chough is a large, black bird—at about 45 cm (18 in) only a little smaller than a raven or a little larger than an Australian magpie—but has red eyes and a finer, slightly down-curved beak, similar to a European chough. These red eyes become swollen and brighter in colour when the bird is excited. In flight the large white patches in the wings are immediately obvious, and explain the descriptive part of their common name.[9]

Their calls consist primarily of a grating alarm call and a descending piping call. The latter call is diagnostic for the bird in the wild, being significantly different in timbre and melody to that of other birds sharing their habitat.

Behaviour

[edit]
On the search for food in short grass

Flight is a mixture of a slow, deep flapping and short glides: unlike their European namesakes, white-winged choughs are not particularly strong or agile fliers and spend the great majority of their time on the ground, foraging methodically through leaf litter for worms, insects, grain, and snails in a loose group, walking with a distinctive swagger, and calling softly to one another every few seconds. A rich find is the cause of general excitement and all come running in to share in it. The family group walks several kilometres each day through its large territory, foraging as it goes, taking to the air only if disturbed.

Choughs are territorial and highly social, living in flocks of from about 4 up to about 20 birds, usually all the offspring of a single pair. Because raising of young is a group effort bands of chough may kidnap fledglings from other family groups so that they will be able to help them to raise their chicks next year.[10][11]

Feeding

[edit]
Foraging in short grass this bird has found a small beetle
A group searching for food
White-winged choughs helping themselves to leftover cream and milk at an outdoor café in the Megalong Valley.
Nest in Binya State Forest, New South Wales, Australia

The white-winged chough will forage in litter and rotten wood for termites and beetles. Although birds have eaten pieces of apple placed out for them on feeding tables, they have not been recorded eating fruit on trees.[12] This species has been observed eating cherry tomatoes, whole, in eastern Australian, Newcastle region.[citation needed]

The diet is varied, the white-winged chough eats seeds of various grasses (Poaceae), Gahnia grandis, Atriplex, Epacris, Hibbertia, Solanum, Acacia and Exocarpos species, as well as introduced species such as the cursed thistle (Cirsium arvense), roadside thistle (C. vulgare), winter honeysuckle (Lonicera fragrantissima), Convolvulus and Oxalis species. Berries of the introduced Cotoneaster and Crataegus are also consumed. It eats a wide variety of arthropods, including centipedes, millipedes and many types of insect—beetles, cockroaches, termites, grasshoppers and crickets, flies, butterflies and moths, and ants, bees and wasps.[13] In some areas, it will readily approach tourist sites to find supplementary food.[14]

Breeding

[edit]

Nesting and breeding is communal, all members of the family helping to raise the young - a process that takes several years, as young birds must learn the art of finding food in the dry Australian bush. Larger families have a better chance of breeding success: so much so that given the opportunity choughs will kidnap the youngsters of neighboring families in order to recruit them to the team.[15]

Breeding season is from August to December. The nest is a deep cup-shaped structure made of grasses held together with mud or sometimes manure in a tree fork up to 10 metres above the ground. Three to five cream-coloured eggs sparsely splotched with dark brown and lavender shades are laid measuring 30 mm x 40 mm.[16]

There is one report of white-winged choughs occupying and using a nest which was likely to have been built by the Australian magpie. However, this was unable to be confirmed as the nest was not witnessed being built.[17]

All members of a family take turns to incubate, preen, and feed youngsters, and all cooperate in defending the nest against predators. However, the juveniles, who are highly inefficient foragers, have been observed to engage in deception; they bring food back to the nest and make to feed nestlings, but instead wait until unobserved, and then eat it themselves. This behaviour disappeared when food sources were artificially supplemented.[18] There are three main threats to young choughs: starvation; predation by nest-robbing birds, particularly currawongs; and sabotage by neighbouring chough families anxious to protect their food supply by restricting competition. Larger family groups are better able to deal with all three threats.

Nesting in communal groups is essential: pairs, or even trios, of birds are almost never successful in raising young. Young take six to seven months to reach independence – a significant time-span for birds – but they repay the long investment by returning to the nest the next year and helping raise the next generation.[19]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

White-winged chough

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) is a medium-sized bird endemic to and the sole living member of the genus Corcorax within the family Corcoracidae, known as Australian mud-nesters. Measuring 43–47 cm in length, it features predominantly glossy black plumage, a down-curved black bill, bright red eyes in adults, and conspicuous white patches on the primaries that are prominent in flight. Juveniles are duller with brownish eyes that turn red over four years, and both sexes are similar in appearance. This highly social species is renowned for its system, living in tight-knit family groups that forage and defend territories communally. White-winged choughs are distributed across much of eastern and southeastern , ranging from coastal (excluding the far north) through , Victoria, and into southeastern , with two recognized : the nominate C. m. melanorhamphos in the east and C. m. whiteae in the south. They inhabit a variety of open eucalypt-dominated woodlands, forests, and savannas, showing a preference for wetter, more mesic environments with dense leaf litter for and proximity to or clay-rich soils for nesting materials. These birds avoid arid interiors and dense rainforests, though they can adapt to modified landscapes like farmlands and parks near settlements. Their large home ranges, often exceeding 1,000 hectares, support group while minimizing overlap with neighboring clans. In behavior, white-winged choughs exemplify obligate cooperativity, forming stable clans of 7–20 individuals—typically a monogamous plus retained offspring and recruits—that engage in all aspects of group life, from ground-foraging for like beetles, , and spiders supplemented by , to territorial defense via synchronized wing-waving displays and vocal choruses of whistles, clucks, and ratchet-like calls. These vocalizations serve , contact, and functions, while their ground-based lifestyle often leads to strutting walks in loose parties. Breeding occurs primarily from to December, peaking in spring, with groups constructing deep mud bowl nests (up to 30 cm wide) on horizontal branches or ledges 1.5–15 m high; the female lays 3–5 cream eggs blotched with brown, incubated for 19–20 days by multiple members, and chicks after about 28 days but remain dependent on helpers for months. A striking aspect is their occasional "" of fledglings from other groups to augment their own workforce, enhancing survival in this kin-selected system. Juveniles delay dispersal, contributing to chick-rearing for up to four years before potentially breeding. Despite from agriculture and urbanization, the white-winged chough remains common and stable, classified as Least Concern on the due to its adaptability and broad range spanning over 3 million square kilometers. Ongoing research highlights its value as a model for studying avian social , with no major threats identified beyond localized declines in heavily cleared areas.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Corcorax derives from the korax, meaning "," combined with a suffix indicating resemblance, highlighting the bird's overall corvid-like form and . The specific epithet melanorhamphos is formed from the Greek words melas (black) and rhamphos ( or ), directly referring to the species' distinctive black, down-curved . This was first established by French naturalist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1817, when he described the bird as Coracia melanorhamphos. The common name "chough" traces back to Middle English choughe, an onomatopoeic term probably imitating the calls of crow-like birds, ultimately from Old English ċēo denoting jackdaws or similar corvids. Early European naturalists applied it to the white-winged chough due to its superficial similarities in shape, plumage, and ground-foraging habits to the unrelated European choughs (Pyrrhocorax spp.), an instance of that influenced its naming despite distant phylogenetic ties.

Classification

The white-winged chough was first formally described in 1817 by the French naturalist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot under the binomial name Coracia melanorhamphos. It was later reclassified into the monotypic genus Corcorax within the family Corcoracidae, which comprises only two surviving species of Australian mud-nest builders, the other being the (Struthidea cinerea). Two subspecies are recognized: the nominate C. m. melanorhamphos, found in eastern from coastal through and Victoria; and C. m. whiteae, occurring in southeastern . The Corcoracidae belong to the diverse clade of birds (order Passeriformes), which encompasses the (crows and allies) and several other families; however, Corcoracidae form a distinct lineage separate from the core . Phylogenetic analyses place Corcoracidae basally within the superfamily of Corvides, reflecting their early divergence. This positioning highlights an ancient Australian lineage, supported by the fossil record of corvoid birds in dating back to the Early , approximately 23 million years ago. The white-winged chough exhibits with the Eurasian choughs of Pyrrhocorax ( Corvidae), sharing traits such as black plumage, ground-foraging habits, and highly , despite their distant phylogenetic relationship. This parallelism underscores the adaptive similarities driven by comparable ecological niches in open woodlands and grasslands.

Description

Morphology

The White-winged chough is a large , with a body length of 44–50 cm and a weight ranging from 280–425 g, rendering it slightly smaller than a common raven but substantially larger than most other Australian songbirds. Its overall build is robust and crow-like, adapted primarily for a terrestrial existence rather than prolonged aerial activity. Adult plumage is uniformly glossy black, often with a subtle greenish sheen on the head feathers in the nominate , accented by prominent white on the primaries that create a conspicuous white wing patch approximately 8 cm wide, visible exclusively in flight. The C. m. whiteae is smaller with a faint pinkish wash in the wing panel. Juveniles possess duller, fluffier with brownish tones, gradually maturing to the coloration over several years, with major changes by the second moult at 12–15 months. The head features striking bright red eyes, which develop from brown in juveniles to red over four years, and a strong, down-curved black bill designed for probing into soil and leaf litter. Wings are short and rounded, while the tail is long and black, both contributing to a silhouette suited for ground navigation and brief aerial movements. Legs and feet are black, with long, sturdy structure, feathered thighs, and strong claws that facilitate walking and running across open terrain. is minimal, absent in plumage and eye color, though females tend to be slightly smaller than males. Key adaptations emphasize its ground-oriented lifestyle, including relatively weak flight muscles that support only short bursts of slow, deep flapping followed by glides, rather than sustained or agile flight. The down-curved bill further aids in soil-probing for food, reinforcing dependence on terrestrial .

Vocalizations

The white-winged chough produces a variety of vocalizations that facilitate communication within its social groups, primarily consisting of contact calls during and harsh calls for signaling threats. The most characteristic contact call is a plaintive, descending whistle, often described as a high-pitched "cheer-cheer" or mournful series of notes, which serves to maintain group cohesion while birds on the ground in loose flocks. These whistles are typically ventriloquial, making the source difficult to pinpoint, and are frequently delivered in chorus by multiple group members, varying in pitch and rhythm to coordinate movements and keep the flock together during activities like probing leaf litter. Alarm calls are distinctly grating and harsh, often rendered as a repetitive "karr-karr" or ratchet-like sound, used to alert the group to potential dangers such as predators. These calls differ acoustically based on threat type: terrestrial alarms (e.g., for ground predators like snakes or dogs) feature broader frequency ranges (low frequency around 1700 Hz, high up to 6000 Hz, duration about 0.3 seconds), while aerial whistles for flying hawks are narrower in bandwidth (high frequency around 2100 Hz, duration 0.5 seconds) and elicit scanning behaviors rather than immediate flight. High-urgency "flee" alarms, given for immediate threats, prompt rapid escape responses from the group, demonstrating functionally referential signaling where specific call structures convey predator type and urgency. In close-range interactions, birds use softer clucking or clicking sounds, along with bill snaps, to communicate during subtle social exchanges without alerting distant threats. White-winged choughs lack complex songs typical of many passerines, relying instead on these functional calls for most communication, with rare instances of vocal reported but not well-documented. Juvenile birds produce distinct calls, characterized as high-pitched peeps or short pulses that decrease in duration as they age, used to solicit food from adults in breeding contexts. These vocalizations underscore the species' emphasis on group coordination over individual displays.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) is native to , where it occupies eastern and southeastern regions from southeastern southward through and Victoria to southern . The northern limit of its range begins south of the Clarke Range in eastern , while it is absent from northern , the arid interior, northwestern , and all of . The overall range has remained stable over time, with no major historical expansions or contractions documented, though local populations may experience minor declines in heavily cleared agricultural landscapes. Observations indicate some groups have adapted to suburban environments within the existing range, potentially allowing occupancy of modified areas near urban fringes. White-winged choughs are predominantly sedentary, maintaining territories within their distribution, but family groups may undertake local movements of up to 30 km in response to seasonal resource availability.

Habitat preferences

The white-winged chough primarily inhabits open eucalypt woodlands and dry forests, favoring areas with abundant leaf litter on the ground for and a semi-open canopy . These habitats, including taller mallee woodlands, support the bird's ground-based feeding habits while providing horizontal branches in eucalypts for nesting. Wetter microhabitats within these environments, such as riparian zones, are particularly preferred due to higher availability and moisture levels that sustain prey populations. Secondary habitats include well-wooded farmlands, mature pine plantations, and urban parks or suburban fringes where human-modified landscapes offer suitable resources like scattered trees and ground cover. These areas are tolerated when they mimic natural conditions, but the species avoids dense rainforests and open treeless plains lacking structural elements for nesting and . Key requirements across all habitats encompass reliable access to or alternative materials like dung for constructing bowl-shaped nests, proximity to water sources for daily drinking, and dense vegetation that retains leaf litter and insects. Seasonally, white-winged choughs show flexibility by shifting toward moister areas during dry periods to access reliable and insect-rich , while demonstrating tolerance for Mediterranean-type shrublands and subtropical dry shrublands outside peak rainfall. This adaptability allows persistence in variable climates, though large territories—up to 1000 hectares—are essential for supporting group foraging needs year-round.

Behavior

Social structure

The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) lives in stable, year-round communal groups typically comprising 4 to 20 individuals, though most groups range from 4 to 8 members. These flocks consist of a dominant breeding pair, retained offspring from previous seasons acting as helpers, and occasionally unrelated recruits that join to bolster group numbers. Helpers, often young birds that delay dispersal due to social constraints and inefficient independent foraging, contribute to group stability by assisting in various tasks, with group cohesion maintained by the presence of the oldest male as a central figure; groups may disintegrate if he departs. The is primarily monogamous, with breeding pairs relying on helpers for in this ; however, occasional occurs, as about 15% of clutches result from two females laying in the same nest. Helpers may assist over multiple seasons, but groups sometimes engage in "" behaviors, where individuals from one group abduct fledglings from neighboring flocks to increase their own numbers, potentially as a form of reciprocity or to offset high juvenile mortality. Female-biased dispersal patterns further shape group composition, with limited movement promoting high relatedness within flocks. Daily routines emphasize group coordination, including , drinking, bathing, and dust-bathing, which reinforce social bonds. Territorial defense is conducted collectively through vocalizations and displays, particularly during the breeding season from to , with groups maintaining defended areas that expand into larger home ranges otherwise. The species' weak flight capabilities restrict long-distance dispersal, fostering strong site fidelity and localized group persistence. Social interactions include frequent allopreening among group members, which helps maintain hygiene and bonds, particularly by helpers toward nestlings, and communal mobbing of predators, where flocks align, display wings, and vocalize aggressively to deter threats. No strict exists, as all members contribute equally to tasks like fledgling care, but group size critically influences ; smaller groups face higher to predation and environmental stresses, with increasing with group size up to at least 14 individuals.

Foraging

The white-winged chough forages primarily on the ground, walking in tight groups and using its curved bill to probe leaf litter, soil, and rotten wood for . It methodically turns over debris and rakes through grass, covering several kilometers daily within large territories that can exceed 1000 hectares. The diet consists mainly of arthropods, including , beetles, , spiders, and other insects, supplemented by seeds from grasses and various plants, as well as berries from native and such as . Grains and opportunistic scavenging of human-provided food also occur at sites like picnic areas. Insects predominate in the diet during summer, while seeds and other plant matter become more important in winter, reflecting seasonal availability. Juveniles are provided with softer during development. As ground in woodlands and open areas, white-winged choughs contribute to controlling populations, with group foraging efficiency improving as flock size increases due to enhanced area coverage and food detection.

Breeding

The breeding season of the white-winged chough typically spans August to December in southern Australia, often initiated by rainfall that softens the soil for nest-building materials. Groups generally produce one clutch per year, though a second brood may occur in favorable conditions. Nests are large, bowl-shaped structures composed of mud reinforced with grass and hair, constructed collectively by all group members in tree forks or on horizontal branches, usually 3–10 m above the ground but occasionally up to 20 m. Building requires wet mud, sourced from damp soil in nearby habitats, and can take 2–3 weeks under ideal conditions, though it may extend to several months during dry periods when mud is scarce; in such cases, groups sometimes substitute cattle or emu dung. The female lays a of 3–5 eggs, which are creamy white with brown spots. Incubation lasts about 19–20 days and is performed by all group members, with helpers assisting in incubation and providing food to the brooding birds. The altricial chicks remain in the nest for approximately 28 days before fledging, initially flightless and unable to independently; helpers from prior broods perform the majority of feeding duties, which contributes to higher fledging success in larger groups, and the young remain dependent on the group for several months post-fledging. Cooperative breeding is obligatory for successful reproduction, with non-breeding helpers—typically retained offspring from previous seasons—assisting in nest construction, incubation, and chick provisioning; while is rare, inter-group aggression can involve ovicide, nest destruction, and occasional group takeovers.

Conservation

Population status

The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) is classified as Least Concern on the , a status reflecting its extremely large extent of occurrence (approximately 2,800,000 km²) and lack of evidence for population decline. This assessment has remained stable, with no recorded changes in category since the species' inclusion in the Red List evaluations. The global population size has not been quantified, though the species is described as common across its range in eastern and southeastern Australia. Overall population trends are stable, with suspected ongoing stability and no approach to thresholds for higher risk categories under IUCN criteria. Local population fluctuations occur, including increases associated with adaptation to urban habitats in areas such as Canberra, where the species is a common breeding resident. Declines have been noted in fragmented woodland regions of southeastern Australia, linked to habitat changes from agricultural activities. The species demonstrates resilience, supported by ongoing monitoring through Australian citizen science initiatives like eBird and Birds in Backyards, which contribute to tracking distribution and abundance.

Threats

The primary threats to the white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) stem from caused by agricultural expansion and , which diminish essential resources such as leaf litter for and for nest . These activities alter woodland ecosystems, isolating populations and hindering the ' cooperative social dynamics, as smaller habitat patches limit group formation necessary for successful breeding. In southeastern , where much of the ' range occurs, woodland clearance for farming has been a key driver of decline for sensitive birds like the white-winged chough. Secondary threats include predation by introduced species such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and cats (Felis catus), which target ground-foraging adults and fledglings, particularly in fragmented landscapes where escape cover is reduced. Competition for food intensifies in modified environments, where altered limits access to and other , while occasional exposure to rodenticides poses indirect risks through secondary poisoning. Urban areas also increase nest predation pressure from native birds like pied currawongs, forcing choughs to invest more in defense but potentially reducing overall reproductive output. Climate-related impacts, particularly droughts and increasing , exacerbate these pressures by reducing availability for and drying sources critical for nest building, leading to disrupted breeding and higher mortality rates. During prolonged dry periods, social instability rises, with elevated dispersal and group disruptions that can lower survival. Conservation efforts benefit the white-winged chough through legal protections in national parks and reserves across its Australian range, where intact woodlands provide refuges from fragmentation. and woodland restoration programs in cleared areas support recovery by restoring habitats and connectivity. Classified as Least Concern globally due to its stable and widespread populations, the species requires no specific targeted action plans but ongoing monitoring to track localized declines from ongoing land-use changes.

References

  1. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/birds/white-winged-chough/
  2. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/8658-Corcorax-melanorhamphos
  3. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=D7FD304672C53542
  4. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/whwcho1/cur/introduction
  5. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/white-winged-chough-corcorax-melanorhamphos
  6. https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/white-winged-chough/
  7. https://www.avesdecostarica.org/uploads/7/0/1/0/70104897/scientific-bird-names.pdf
  8. https://earthlife.net/white-winged-chough/
  9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=9145&lvl=0
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790315002511
  11. https://www.bird-phylogeny.de/passerine-families/corcoracidae/
  12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49781532_Major_global_radiation_of_corvoid_birds_originated_in_the_proto-Papuan_archipelago
  13. https://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-white-winged-chough.html
  14. https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/White-winged-Chough-1.pdf
  15. https://www.mdahlem.net/birds/23/wwchough.php
  16. https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/species/7229
  17. http://www.arthurgrosset.com/ozbirds/white-wingedchough.html
  18. https://ebird.org/species/whwcho1
  19. https://xeno-canto.org/species/Corcorax-melanorhamphos
  20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000334722500257X
  21. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/22763/White-winged_Chough
  22. https://www.publish.csiro.au/mu/MU99001
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227698338_Group_composition_and_reproductive_success_of_cooperatively_breeding_White-winged_Choughs_Corcorax_melanorhamphos_in_urban_and_non-urban_habitat
  24. https://connectingcountry.org.au/bird-of-the-month-white-winged-chough/
  25. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01761.x
  26. https://cdn.environment.sa.gov.au/landscape/docs/hf/pa-fact-whitewingedchough.pdf
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230244131_Communal_activities_among_white-winged_choughs_Corcorax_melanorhamphos
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342410345_Social_structure_individual_fitness_and_the_effect_of_climate_in_an_obligate_cooperatively_breeding_bird_the_white-winged_chough_Corcorax_melanorhamphos
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24309314_Social_constraint_and_an_absence_of_sex-biased_dispersal_drive_fine-scale_genetic_structure_in_White-winged_Choughs
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226325790_Deception_by_helpers_in_co-operatively_breeding_white-winged_chough_and_its_experimental_manipulation
  31. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4760192/
  32. https://ecovineyards.com.au/wp-content/uploads/EcoVineyards-bird-guide-V3.1U-WEB.pdf
  33. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.844
  34. https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/key-server/data/03050501-000c-4503-8203-0a030507090d/media/Html/Corcorax_melanorhamphos.htm
  35. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.01001.x
  36. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347288801349
  37. https://biodiversityconservationblog.com/2020/10/13/faction-wars-social-behaviour-dynamics-in-white-winged-choughs/
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236273941_Woodland_fragmentation_is_causing_the_decline_of_species_and_functional_groups_of_birds_in_southeastern_Australia
  39. https://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Corcorax-melanorhamphos
  40. http://www.hermonslade.org.au/hsf_03_1/
  41. https://www.simplybirding.com/birds/white-winged-chough/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.