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Apostlebird
Apostlebird
Apostlebird
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Apostlebird
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Corcoracidae
Genus: Struthidea
Gould, 1837
Species:
S. cinerea
Binomial name
Struthidea cinerea
Gould, 1837

The apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea), also known as the grey jumper, lousy jack or happy family,[2] is a quick-moving, gray or black bird about 33 cm (13 in) long. It is a native to Australia where it roams woodlands, eating insects and seeds at, or near, ground level. Apostlebirds often travel in groups of about 12; for this reason, they were named after the 12 Biblical apostles.

Taxonomy

[edit]

Originally described by ornithologist John Gould in 1837, its specific epithet is Latin cinerea "grey".[3] In its own genus Struthidea, it is placed in the family known as the mud-nest builders or Corcoracidae, written as Grallinidae in older books before the removal of the genus Grallina to the monarch family. It is one of two remaining species, with the white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos), which differs in appearance but exhibits many behavioural similarities.[4] The mudnest builder family Corcoracidae itself is now placed in a narrower "core corvine" group, which contains the crows and ravens, shrikes, birds of paradise, fantails, monarch flycatchers, and drongos.[5]

The apostlebird was named after the Biblical apostles, the twelve followers of Jesus Christ.[6][7] In fact, the species travel in family groups of between 6 and 20, which may coalesce with other family groups into large feeding flocks of over 40. Their gregarious nature, and harsh scolding/grating calls have led to a plethora of colloquial names. They can be known locally as lousy jacks (due to heavy louse infestations[8]), happy jacks, and happy families. Grey jumper is an alternate name.

Description

[edit]

Measuring around 33 cm (13 in) in length, the apostlebird is a predominantly dark grey bird with a long black tail tinted greenish in sunlight. The grey feathers on the head, neck and breast are brushed with paler grey-white and the wings are brownish. The legs and bill are black and the eyes brown or white.[6]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The natural range is across inland eastern Australia, from the mallee regions of northern Victoria and eastern South Australia, north through New South Wales and central-western Queensland to the Gulf Country. There is an isolated population in the Northern Territory. Dry open woodland is the preferred habitat, especially Callitris in New South Wales and Casuarina in Queensland, and Lancewood-Bulwaddi communities in the Northern Territory.[6]

Breeding

[edit]
Mud nest high in a fig tree

Apostlebirds are a socially living, cooperative breeding species with each breeding group generally containing only one breeding pair, the rest being either their helper offspring, kin or unrelated adult birds. Most group members help construct a mud nest, share in incubation of the eggs, and defense of the nest. Once the eggs are hatched, all members of the group help feed the chicks and keep the nest clean.

Apostlebirds are a fission-fusion society. In winter, birds flock in larger groups, and as breeding season approaches winter groups break into smaller breeding groups. This change in group size is a consequence of breeding groups merging in the winter and breaking apart again in the summer breeding season. Breeding groups use small, non overlapping home ranges around the nest site, while winter ranges are larger with groups freely interacting with other groups.[9]

Breeding season is from August to December. The nest is a deep cup-shaped structure made of grasses held together with mud or sometimes manure in a tree fork up to seven or eight metres above the ground. Three to five pale blue-white eggs sparsely splotched with brown and lavender shades are laid measuring 22 mm x 29 mm. They are tapered oval in shape.[10]

Conservation status

[edit]

Apostlebirds are not listed as threatened on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. However, their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia. For example:

  • The apostlebird is listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988).[11] Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has not yet been prepared.[12]
  • On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the apostlebird is not listed as a threatened species.[13]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Apostlebird

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) is a medium-sized, dark grey bird endemic to eastern , measuring 29–33 cm in length with a stout black bill, brown wings, long black tail, and black legs, often seen foraging in highly social groups of 6–20 individuals (sometimes up to 30) that earned it the name from early settlers who likened the typical group size to the biblical Twelve Apostles. It inhabits open dry woodlands, grasslands, and eucalyptus savannas, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions west of the from Victoria to the , with an isolated population in the , favoring areas near water sources essential for nest construction. These birds are adaptable to human-modified landscapes, commonly appearing on farmlands, roadsides, orchards, and golf courses, where they exhibit tame behavior and sometimes forage alongside domestic poultry. Apostlebirds are primarily ground-foragers with a strutting , feeding on such as grasshoppers and , , and matter, with occasional small vertebrates like mice; their diet shifts toward in autumn and winter. They are non-migratory but make local movements, often associating with White-winged Choughs, and engage in dust-bathing on roadsides and allopreening within groups to maintain social bonds. Breeding occurs cooperatively from to , with groups forming units led by a dominant male and multiple females, where helpers (often offspring from prior seasons) assist in building large mud bowl nests 3–20 m above ground, incubating 2–8 pale blue eggs for 18–19 days, and feeding nestlings for 18–29 days, typically raising up to two broods per season with 4 young surviving per nest. Their vocalizations include a rough "ch-kew" call used in group coordination. The species is classified as Least Concern globally by the IUCN but is listed as threatened in Victoria under state legislation, reflecting its stable national population despite localized vulnerabilities.

Taxonomy

Classification

The apostlebird, scientifically named Struthidea cinerea, was first described by English ornithologist John Gould in 1837 as part of his publication A Synopsis of the Birds of Australia, and the Adjacent Islands. The specific epithet cinerea is derived from the Latin word for "ash-gray," alluding to the bird's predominant plumage coloration. Gould designated the type locality as the interior of New South Wales, Australia, based on specimens collected from that region. The occupies the monotypic Struthidea, which contains no other recognized members, within the family Corcoracidae (Australian mudnesters). This placement situates the apostlebird in the order Passeriformes (perching birds) and the suborder Oscines (songbirds), reflecting its oscine vocal and morphological traits. The family Corcoracidae was established later in taxonomic history to accommodate this and closely related forms, following initial classifications that varied by early ornithologists. Historically, the was synonymized under Brachystoma cinerea by William Swainson in the same year as Gould's description, representing an early alternative generic placement before the stabilization of Struthidea and the Corcoracidae framework. No other significant synonyms have persisted in modern .

Relationships

The Corcoracidae, endemic to , comprises only two : the apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) and the white-winged (Corcorax melanorhamphos), both renowned for constructing elaborate mud nests attached to vertical surfaces such as tree trunks or rock faces. These birds share a highly social lifestyle and behaviors, adaptations that distinguish the family within the oscine passerines. Phylogenetically, the apostlebird occupies a basal position within Corcoracidae, forming a monophyletic with the white-winged as its closest relative. Immunological and DNA-DNA hybridization studies from the late , corroborated by multi-gene molecular analyses in the , demonstrate this close relationship, with the divergence between Struthidea and Corcorax estimated at approximately 10–15 million years ago based on genetic distance calibrations. The Corcoracidae belongs to the core (also termed Corvides), a diverse Australo-Papuan radiation within the oscine suborder of the Passeriformes order, originating around 30 million years ago in the proto-Papuan . No are recognized for the apostlebird (S. cinerea), reflecting its relatively uniform morphology across its range.

Description

Morphology

The apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) is a medium-sized with a total length ranging from 29 to 33 , an average of 33 , a wingspan of 48–52 , and a body mass of 110–155 g. These dimensions reflect its stocky, robust build adapted to terrestrial life in arid environments. The species exhibits a compact body structure featuring short, rounded wings suited for brief flights, a long graduated tail measuring 13–17 cm that aids in balance during ground movement, strong legs with a tarsus length of 34–47 mm enabling agile foraging on the substrate, and a short, stout bill (23–30 mm) designed for probing soil and . This morphology supports its predominantly ground-based lifestyle, with the bill's depth and strength facilitating extraction of from the earth. Sexual dimorphism is absent in terms of size, structure, or external features, rendering males and females morphologically indistinguishable. Juveniles closely resemble adults in overall form but differ in having a softer, less hardened bill and a comparatively less robust build, which may reflect developmental immaturity.

Plumage variations

The adult apostlebird exhibits a soft, dark plumage overall, with pale or greyish-white mottling on the head, , and breast, and indistinct pale mottling on the underparts. The wings are , the tail is , the stout bill is , and the legs and feet are ; the iris is with a thin pearly outer ring. Juveniles are similar but duller, with softer, looser-textured feathers on the head and body showing less marked streaking or short off-white chevron-like markings, a grey-brown bill, and brown irises; they also retain narrower rectrices and broader outer primaries. Age-related changes include a gradual iris transition from brown in fledglings to grey in yearlings and grey with a yellow outer ring by the second year, when full is attained. There is no sexual dichromatism, as males and females are monomorphic in and size. Geographic variation is minimal across the two , with the northern S. c. dalyi slightly larger but otherwise similar in coloration to the nominate S. c. cinerea. Apostlebirds undergo an annual post-breeding molt starting around , resulting in no distinct breeding plumage.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) is endemic to , primarily inhabiting the inland regions of eastern from southeast southward through inland to northern Victoria along the , and extending into eastern mainly north of the . An isolated population occurs in the south of the Roper River, with the northern limit reaching northern and central near the . The species' distribution is discontinuous across some arid zones, reflecting adaptations to variable inland conditions. Vagrant records beyond the core range remain rare, limited mostly to sporadic coastal or urban sightings such as in the region. Post-European settlement, the apostlebird's range has expanded significantly due to land clearing that opened up suitable habitats, with at least half of its current distribution established within the last century. Conversely, contractions have been noted in wetter eastern fringes, including the of a peripheral population in southwestern Victoria and southeastern ; the species is listed as vulnerable in Victoria as of 2021 due to these localized declines. Assessments indicate a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals, though the overall range has shown expansion in some areas due to modification.

Habitat preferences

The apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) primarily inhabits open eucalypt woodlands, scrubs, and dry forests characterized by a grassy , favoring environments with scattered trees that provide both opportunities and nesting sites. Key tree species associated with these habitats include Callitris in , Casuarina and Allocasuarina in , and lancewood-bulwaddi communities in the , which offer suitable branches for mud nest construction. These birds avoid dense rainforests and coastal dunes, preferring arid and semi-arid open landscapes over more humid or barren coastal areas. Their altitudinal range extends from sea level to approximately 1,390 meters, encompassing lowlands and inland plateaus across eastern Australia. Microhabitat preferences emphasize proximity to water sources, such as streams or watercourses, essential for gathering mud to build their characteristic bowl-shaped nests. Ground cover, including grasses and leaf litter, supports their activities in these settings, while the species demonstrates tolerance for semi-arid conditions but shows sensitivity to prolonged droughts, which can hinder nest-building due to mud scarcity. In terms of habitat use, apostlebirds are predominantly ground-dwelling, spending the majority of their time walking and foraging on the forest floor with a distinctive strutting gait. They roost communally in trees at night, seeking elevated branches for safety, which underscores their reliance on a mix of open ground and arboreal structures within their preferred woodlands.

Behavior

Social structure

Apostlebirds (Struthidea cinerea) live in stable, year-round social groups known as clans, typically comprising 6–20 individuals with an average size of 10–12 birds. These groups usually consist of a monogamous , philopatric helpers primarily from previous , and occasionally unrelated immigrant adults that join to augment the group. High within-group relatedness, averaging around 0.35, underscores the familial nature of these clans, with 87.4% of new recruits being non-dispersing of both sexes that exhibit low dispersal distances, often less than 1 km from their natal site. Group dynamics are characterized by communal daily activities that reinforce social bonds and collective defense. Individuals and together on the ground or in low trees, engaging in allopreening to remove ectoparasites and maintain within the group. When threats arise, such as predators or human intruders, the entire participates in behaviors, approaching aggressively with alarm calls, swoops, and physical contact using beaks and feet to deter the danger. A loose exists, primarily based on age, with older adults—distinguishable by their iris color progressing from brown in fledglings to gray with a yellow outer ring in mature individuals—holding higher status and leading group movements. These social arrangements provide key benefits, including improved predator detection through coordinated and enhanced efficiency via collective ground searches that allow better resource location in open habitats. The year-round group stability, facilitated by low dispersal and familial kinship, promotes survival in variable arid environments, while contribute to overall group productivity, including support during breeding seasons.

Foraging and diet

Apostlebirds primarily on the ground in loose groups, walking with a distinctive strutting while using their bills to scratch at the soil and litter or occasionally kicking through leaf debris to uncover items. They may also glean from low vegetation but rarely above ground level, and their activity is diurnal. Group in parties of six to ten individuals enhances efficiency in locating and exploiting patches. The diet is omnivorous, dominated by invertebrates such as , grasshoppers, weevils, and shield bugs, supplemented by and vegetable matter. Small fruits are occasionally consumed, along with opportunistic items like eggs from other birds' nests or small vertebrates such as house mice. Seasonal variations in diet reflect resource availability, with a greater emphasis on during summer and the breeding period, shifting to and other plant material in autumn and winter when invertebrate abundance declines. In drier periods, apostlebirds move to open country habitats where form a more prominent component of their intake.

Vocalizations

The apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) possesses a diverse vocal repertoire consisting of at least 17 distinct call types, ranging from simple monosyllabic notes to more complex multi-syllable vocalizations with frequency modulations. Common calls include the "kweer," a frequent close-range contact call given during ; the "piping" call, used when individuals are separated from the group; and the "chee-ow," employed in intra- and inter-group interactions. Alarm calls such as sharp "clicks" and the "chau" are harsh and staccato, while juveniles produce calls like the higher-pitched "kair." These vocalizations are delivered in series, often as soft whistles or notes within family groups to maintain cohesion. The functions of these calls are primarily tied to the species' cooperative social structure, including defense through long-range calls like "picau" during inter-group encounters, group coordination via contact calls such as "kweer" and "kau" to signal departure or reunite members, and predator with rapid "chau" series to deter threats. Pairs may engage in coordinated calling during nesting activities, such as "chewa-reea" for changeovers, though detailed duetting is not well-documented. Juveniles use calls to solicit food, and these vocalizations collectively facilitate social coordination in fission-fusion groups. Acoustically, apostlebird calls typically span a frequency range of 1.5–5 kHz, with peak frequencies varying by type—for instance, the "kweer" peaks at around 1.9 kHz over a duration of 0.23 seconds, while "clicks" reach 4.6 kHz in 0.13 seconds. Calls are often with elements, and their delivery rate accelerates during aggressive or contexts, such as , to convey urgency. Individual recognition is encoded in certain calls, particularly the "kweer," which exhibits stable acoustic variation allowing group members to distinguish familiar individuals based on vocal signatures alone, likely learned through family interactions. This differentiation supports within-group cohesion without visual cues.

Breeding

The breeding season of the apostlebird extends from to , corresponding to the Austral spring and summer, during which groups typically attempt one to two clutches annually. This timing is influenced by environmental cues such as rainfall, with mid- to late precipitation potentially delaying the onset of egg-laying by softening for nest and signaling availability. Nests are bowl-shaped, measuring approximately 15 cm in external , and are constructed communally by group members using mud reinforced with saliva and occasionally plant fibers for binding. These structures are typically positioned in the forks or on horizontal branches of rough-barked trees, at heights of 3–20 m above ground, and may be reused or repaired in subsequent breeding attempts if they remain intact. Clutches usually comprise 3-5 pale bluish-white eggs, occasionally marked with dark splotches, which are incubated for 18-20 days primarily by the breeding female but with assistance from the male and non-breeding helpers. Chicks hatch asynchronously, resulting in a size hierarchy that can influence sibling competition. Parental care is highly cooperative, with helpers providing the majority of provisioning to nestlings—contributing to most feeding bouts and nest defense against predators—thereby alleviating the breeders' workload. Young fledge after 18-25 days in the nest and receive continued feeding and protection from the group for up to 10 weeks post-fledging. Reproductive success varies, with a mean of 2.6 fledglings per nest (≈67% of eggs) and about 80% of nests producing at least one fledgling. enhances productivity by increasing clutch size and fledging rates in smaller groups (3-5 members), but does not significantly improve post-fledging or adult survival.

Conservation

Status

The Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) is classified as Least Concern on the , following a 2024 assessment. This status reflects its stable population and extensive range, with an extent of occurrence spanning 3,950,000 km² across inland eastern . No substantial threats are identified at the global level that would elevate its risk of . In , the species is not listed as threatened under the national Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Regionally, however, it holds Vulnerable status in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, with assessments confirming this classification as of the March 2025 threatened list. Overall population trends remain stable, though local declines have occurred in fragmented habitats in southeastern regions due to agricultural clearance. Conversely, the species has expanded its range in pastoral areas of Queensland, South Australia, and the Northern Territory. These dynamics indicate no imminent extinction risk. Monitoring efforts are supported by BirdLife Australia's national surveys, including the Birdata platform, which tracks distribution and abundance through contributions. Given its stable national status, no formal recovery plan is required at the federal level.

Threats and management

The apostlebird faces primary threats from and loss driven by and livestock grazing, which have led to declines in eastern and southeastern where habitats are cleared for farming. In Victoria, such activities have reduced critical cypress-pine woodlands to less than 1% of their former distribution in the upper Murray Valley, exacerbating fragmentation and isolating populations. and further disrupt breeding by limiting access to wet mud needed for constructing nests, often forcing birds to use alternative materials like cow dung during prolonged dry periods. Wildfires pose an additional risk by destroying mature trees used for nesting sites, reducing available in fire-prone regions. While less documented, road mortality in pastoral landscapes may contribute to local losses, though it remains a minor factor compared to habitat degradation. Conservation management emphasizes habitat restoration and protection, particularly in Victoria where the species is listed as Vulnerable under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (as of March 2025). Efforts focus on preserving and rehabilitating woodland remnants in reserves to maintain connectivity and suitable areas. Nationally, monitoring relies on databases like the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas and citizen science contributions to track distribution and trends, aiding in threat assessment without the need for captive breeding programs given the species' stable overall status. The apostlebird demonstrates resilience to but remains vulnerable to intensified droughts, with projections indicating increased frequency and severity across inland by 2050 due to ongoing .

References

  1. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/birds/apostlebird/
  2. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Struthidea_cinerea/
  3. https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/apostlebird/
  4. https://earthlife.net/apostlebirds/
  5. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/182460
  6. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=5811EC08
  7. https://bie.ala.org.au/species/Struthidea%2Bcinerea%2Bcinerea
  8. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/corcor1/cur/introduction
  9. https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/fulltext/ZO9920173
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790309000979
  11. http://macroecointern.dk/pdf-reprints/J%C3%B8nsson_et_al_MPE_2016.pdf
  12. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/apostlebird-struthidea-cinerea
  13. https://birdfact.com/birds/apostlebird
  14. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/apostl1/cur/introduction
  15. https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Apostlebird-1.pdf
  16. https://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Struthidea-cinerea
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281455995_The_changing_distribution_of_the_Apostlebird_Struthidea_cinerea
  18. https://bio-prd-naturekit-public-data.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/species_assessments/Struthidea_cinerea_10675.pdf
  19. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/22766/Apostlebird
  20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03009.x
  21. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.844
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340172653_Contact_mobbing_of_a_human_by_Apostlebirds_Struthidea_cinerea_in_response_to_one_of_the_flock_being_captured
  23. http://fieldguides.com/triplists/aus14p.html
  24. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1071/MU13051
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264862002_The_vocal_repertoire_of_the_cooperatively_breeding_Apostlebird_Struthidea_cinerea
  26. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/26/2/493/258241
  27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3867903/
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248902322_Breeding_ecology_and_group_dynamics_of_the_apostlebird
  29. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.13438
  30. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.01001.x
  31. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/species
  32. https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/species/6370
  33. https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/741627/FFG_Threatened_List_March_2025.pdf
  34. https://birdlife.org.au/programs/birdata/
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