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Embedded Data: A DVD-R disc (also applies to DVD+R) which is only partially written to. Data is burned onto the disc with a writing laser.
Optical discs
General
Optical media types
Standards
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DVD recordable and DVD rewritable are a collection of optical disc formats that can be written to by a DVD recorder and by computers using a DVD writer. The "recordable" discs are write-once read-many (WORM) media, where as "rewritable" discs are able to be erased and rewritten. Data is written ("burned") to the disc by a laser, rather than the data being "pressed" onto the disc during manufacture, like a DVD-ROM. Pressing is used in mass production, primarily for the distribution of home video.

DVD±R (also DVD+/-R, or "DVD plus/dash R") is a shorthand term for both DVD+R and DVD-R formats. Likewise, the term DVD±RW refers to both rewritable disc types, the DVD+RW and the DVD-RW. DVD±R/W (also written as, DVD±R/RW, DVD±R/±RW, DVD+/-RW, DVD±R(W) and other arbitrary ways) handles all common writable disc types, but not DVD-RAM.[1] A drive that supports writing to all these disc types including DVD-RAM (but not necessarily including cartridges or 8cm diameter discs) is referred to as a "Multi" recorder.[2]

Like CD-Rs, DVD recordable uses dye to store the data. During the burning of a single bit, the laser's intensity affects the reflective properties of the burned dye. By varying the laser intensity quickly, high density data is written in precise tracks. Since written tracks are made of darkened dye, the data side of a recordable DVD has a distinct color. Burned DVDs have a higher failure-to-read rate than pressed DVDs, due to differences in the reflective properties of dye compared to the aluminum substrate of pressed discs.

Comparing recordable CDs and DVDs

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The larger storage capacity of a DVD-R compared to a CD-R is achieved by focusing the laser to a smaller point, creating smaller 'pits' as well as a finer track pitch of the groove spiral which guides the laser beam. These two changes allow more pits to be written in the same physical disc area, giving higher data density. The smaller focus is possible with a shorter wavelength 'red' laser of 650 nm, compared to CD-R's wavelength of 780 nm. This is used in conjunction with a higher numerical aperture lens. The dyes used in each case are different as they are optimized for different wavelengths.

R and RW formats

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DVD-RW discs on a spindle

"R" format DVDs can be written once and read arbitrarily many times, whereas "RW" formats can be written to repeatedly. Thus, "R" format discs are only suited to non-volatile data storage, such as audio or video. This can cause confusion because the 'DVD+RW Alliance' logo is a stylized 'RW'. Thus, many discs have the RW logo, but are not rewritable.

According to Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement.[3] RW discs are used to store volatile data, such as when creating backups or collections of files which are subject to change and re-writes. They are also ideal for home DVD video recorders, where it is advantageous to have a rewritable format capable of digital video data speeds, while being removable, small, and relatively inexpensive. Another benefit to using a rewritable disc is if the burning process produces errors or corrupted data, it can simply be written over again to correct the error, or the corrupted data can be erased. This is also useful for testing optical disc authoring software.

DVD-R and DVD-RW (DVD "dash")

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The DVD-R format was developed by Pioneer in 1997.[4] It is supported by most normal DVD players and is approved by the DVD Forum. It has broader playback compatibility than DVD+R, especially with much older players.[citation needed] The dash format uses a "land pre-pit" method [5] to provide sector address information.

DVD "minus" R is not correct, according to DVD-R consortium recommendations; it is, in fact, a dash (i.e. DVD "dash" R).[citation needed] DVD-R and DVD+R technologies are not directly compatible, which created a format war in the DVD technology industry. To reconcile the two competing formats, manufacturers created hybrid drives that could read both — most hybrid drives that handle both formats are labeled DVD±R and Super Multi (which includes DVD-RAM support) and are very popular.

DVD-RW versions

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A DVD-RW disc is a rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-R, typically 4.7 GB (4,700,000,000 bytes). The format was developed by Pioneer in November 1999 and has been approved by the DVD Forum. The smaller Mini DVD-RW holds 1.46 GB, with a diameter of 8 cm.[6]

The data side of a blank DVD-RW.

The primary advantage of DVD-RW over DVD-R is the ability to erase and rewrite to a DVD-RW disc. According to Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement.[7]

There are three revisions of DVD-RW known as Version 1.0 (1999), Version 1.1 (2000) and Version 1.2 (November 2003).[8]

The writing of DVD-RW Version 1.2 is not backwards-compatible with earlier optical drives that have only been adapted to Version 1.1 and Version 1.0.[9][10]

DVD-RW media exists in the recording speed variants of 1× (discontinued), 2×, 4× and 6×. Higher speed variants, although compatible with lower writing speeds, are written to with the lowest error rate at the rated speed, similarly to CD-RW.[11][12][13][14]

DVD+R and DVD+RW (DVD "plus")

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History

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The DVD+R format was developed by a coalition of corporations—now known as the DVD+RW Alliance—in mid-2002, stemming from a research project at Hewlett-Packard Laboratories (a.k.a. HP Labs) that originated in 1996. The project was the brainchild of Josh Hogan, who represented HP and was involved in the negotiations that resulted in the compromise format for DVD-ROM (prerecorded media) between the DVD Forum and the Sony and Philips teams. HP chose to partner with Sony and Philips, who were initially lukewarm to a fully rewritable format. The success of the HP Labs project in proving out the technology convinced Sony and Philips to go ahead with the move.

The issue was drop-in compatibility of a rewritable format with the existing DVD-ROM players. Rewritable media (such as magnetic hard disk drives or rewritable CDs) have edit gaps between sectors, to provide a buffer so that any timing inaccuracies in the write clock would not result in new data accidentally overwriting any of the other sectors. DVD-ROM disks, being mastered with a continuous stream of data, had no need for edit gaps. In fact, makers of pre-recorded DVD media were quite cool to the idea of users being able to use this format for their own recordings. HP saw this as an opportunity to enter the business, but solving the lack of edit gaps was the key problem. In early 1996, HP exited the hard disk drive business, and two HPL engineers, Daniel (Danny) Abramovitch and Terril Hurst, were moved onto the rewritable DVD project. Abramovitch was (and is) a servo engineer with an interest in timing loops (a.k.a. phase-locked loops). Reading about the wobble grooves on older optical disk formats, Abramovitch proposed that a wobble frequency at roughly the same frequency as the data frequency would provide enough timing accuracy (i.e. allow us to lock a phase-locked loop with small enough jitter) so as to provide sub-bit accuracy on the timing. In a servo systems parlance, this was a high frequency, high-fidelity reference signal for the timing servo loop to follow. Essentially, it would be possible to turn a tracking loop sideways and use all the tools of control theory to improve the timing. The issue was that it was not clear that such a signal would not affect the data itself. It was an insight by David (Dave) Towner, an optical engineer attached to the project, that the detection modes for the wobble and the data (how they added or differenced the regions on the optical detector), would themselves provide enough common mode rejection to separate the signals. At this point, the notion of high frequency wobbles was born. Much of the team's effort after that was to prove out this concept, which led to the fundamental patent for the format by Abramovitch and Towner (US Patent # 6046968, filed July 24, 1997, issued April 4, 2000), entitled Re-Writable Optical Disk Having Reference Clock Information Permanently Formed on the Disk. By late 1998, through the monthly meetings led by project leader Carl Taussig and often accompanied by Josh Hogan, Sony and Philips had warmed to the idea of the format.

In 1999, the team had argued to then HP CEO Lew Platt, that HP needed to produce products in the set-top market, the computer market, and the camcorder market to truly exploit the invention. Platt, who had a reputation of being risk averse, chose to stick with only the computer drive product scheduled for development at the Boise facility. In 2000, HP was under the direction of new CEO Carly Fiorina, and the division, under new cost constraints, chose to abandon the manufacture of any new optical drives. However, since HP owned the fundamental patent above, they could receive licensing fees for the patent itself and pursued several expansions of the patent in US Patent # 7701836 (Issued April 20, 2010). There was also US Patent # RE41881 (Reissued October 26, 2010), a reissue of US Patent # 6046968 with expanded claims. Finally, there was US Patent # RE43788 (Issued November 6, 2012), a second reissue of Patent # 6046968 with more claims.

With the timing issue solved by high frequency wobbles, the other key issue solved by the HPL team (through the efforts of Terril Hurst and Craig Perlov) was writing bits in a way that would not result in a bleeding of one bit into the next one. Because DVD+RW used phase-change media, this was solved by high speed modulation of short laser pulses to take advantage of the nonlinear heating and cooling properties of the material and control the pulse shapes. Several papers describing these efforts can be found at:[15]

The DVD Forum initially did not approve of the DVD+R format and claimed that the DVD+R format was not an official DVD format until January 25, 2008.[16]

On 25 January 2008, DVD6C officially accepted DVD+R and DVD+RW by adding them to its list of licensable DVD products.[16]

Features

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DVD+RW supports a method of writing called "lossless linking", which makes it suitable for random access and improves compatibility with DVD players.[17] The rewritable DVD+RW standard was formalized earlier than the non-rewritable DVD+R (the opposite was true with the DVD- formats). Although credit for developing the standard is often attributed to Philips, the fundamental work was done by a team at Hewlett-Packard Labs (HPL). It was "finalized" in 1997 by the DVD+RW Alliance once the fundamental patent (US Patent # 6046968) had been filed by the HPL team. It was then abandoned until 2001, when it was heavily revised (in particular, the capacity increased from 2.8 GB to 4.7GB).[citation needed]

The simulated recording mode feature is no longer an official part of the standard like it was for CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R and DVD-RW, although supported by Plextor optical drives.[18][19]

Another distinction in comparison to DVD-R/RW/R DL is that the recorder information (optical drive model) is not written automatically to DVD+ discs by the drive. Nero DiscSpeed allows proprietarily adding such information for later retrieval.[20]

Other changes include the removal of a dedicated SCSI erase command in optical drives, which is done by the software instead that overwrites data with null characters. This means that the standard does not allow reverting the disc to a blank (unwritten) state after the first write.[21]

DVD+RW DL was once developed and announced by JVC but it was never sold due to issues with its low reflectivity (Dual layer).[22][23][24][25]

As of 2006, the market for recordable DVD technology showed little sign of settling down in favour of either the "plus" or "dash" formats, which is mostly the result of the increasing numbers of dual-format devices that can record to both formats, known as DVD Multi Recorders.[26] It has become very difficult to find new computer drives that can only record to one of the formats. By contrast, DVD Video recorders still[when?] favour one format over the other, often providing restrictions on what the unfavoured format will do.[27] However, because the DVD-R format has been in use since 1997, it has had a five-year lead on DVD+R. As such, older or cheaper DVD players (up to 2004 vintage) are more likely to favour the DVD-R standard exclusively.[28][better source needed]

DVD+R discs must be formatted before being recorded by a compatible DVD video recorder. DVD-R do not have to be formatted before being recorded by a compatible DVD video recorder,because the two variants of the discs are written in different formats[clarification needed].

There are a number of significant technical differences between the "dash" and the "plus" format, although most users would not notice the difference. One example is that the DVD+R style address in pregroove (ADIP) system of tracking and speed control is less susceptible to interference and error, which makes the ADIP system more accurate at higher speeds than the land pre pit (LPP) system used by DVD-R. In addition, DVD+R(W) has a more robust error-management system than DVD-R(W), allowing for more accurate burning to media, independent of the quality of the media. The practical upshot is that a DVD+R writer is able to locate data on the disc to byte accuracy whereas DVD-R is incapable of such precision.

DVD+R also has a larger Power Calibration Area (PCA). The PCA in DVD+R has a length of 32768 sectors, compared to the 7088 of DVD-R. In the PCA, which is located close to the inner edge of the disc, a 15-step procedure is carried out to calibrate (vary the power of) the disc drive's laser before every and during writing, to allow for small differences between discs and drives. This process is known as a power test. Calibration during writing allows for small changes in quality between different sections of the disc, such as slightly different optical properties, impurities or dye layer thickness in either the plastic or dye. The results of the power tests are stored in a Recording Management Area (RMA), which can hold up to 7,088 calibrations (in DVD-R). The disc can not be written to after the RMA becomes full, although it may be emptied in RW discs. CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-R DL, DVD+R DL, DVD+RW and DVD-R all have a PCA. CDs (and possibly DVDs) may also have two PCAs: one on the inner edge of the disc, for low speed testing, and another on the outer edge for high speed testing.[29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]

Additional session linking methods are more accurate with DVD+R(W) versus DVD-R(W), resulting in fewer damaged or unusable discs due to buffer under-run and multi-session discs with fewer PI/PO errors.[37]

Like other "plus" media, it is possible to change the book type to increase the compatibility of DVD+R media (though unlike DVD+RW, it is a one way process). This is also known as bitsetting.[38]

Wobble frequency

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Developed by HP in collaboration with Philips and Sony and their DVD+RW Alliance, the "plus" format uses a more reliable[citation needed] bi-phase modulation technique[39] to provide "sector" address information. It was introduced after the "-" format.

The wobble frequency has been increased from 140.6 kHz to 817.4 kHz.[40]

Transfer rates

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See also: DVD § Transfer rates

Like DVD-R (single-layer), DVD+R (single-layer) media officially exists with rated recording speeds of up to 16× (constant angular velocity). However, on both +R and -R types, some models of half-height (desktop) optical drives allow bypassing the rating and recording at speeds beyond 16× on selected recordable media by vendors considered of high quality, including Verbatim and Taiyo Yuden.

On dual-layer media, half-height optical drives released towards 2010, such as the 2007 TSSTcorp TS-H653B,[41] have adapted recording speeds of up to 16× on DVD+R DL media by selected vendors, compared to up to 12× on DVD-R DL. More recent optical drives have reduced their maximum allowable recording speed on both +R DL and -R DL media to 8×, usually P-CAV.[14][12][11]

DVD+RW media exists with the writing speed ratings of 1×-4× and 2.4×-8×.[42][43]

Reading speeds (constant angular velocity) on most half-height optical drives released since the mid-2000s decade are up to 16× on DVD±R (single-layer) and 12× on DVD±R DL and DVD±RW.[12][11][14]

All constant linear velocity transfer rates (read and write) of 2.0× on DVD-R/RW have been replaced with 2.4× in the specification for DVD+R/RW. Thus, specification sheets of optical drives list "2.4× CLV" instead of "2× CLV" as the base transfer rate level for DVD+R/RW. Earlier optical drives also have a 1.0× transfer rate level for both DVD-R/RW and DVD+R/RW.[14][44][45]

Random writing

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DVD+RW discs can be written randomly in any location that has been sequentially written to before at least once.

If a packet writing-enabled Universal Disk Format (UDF) is mounted, the operating system may perform a "background formatting" while the disc is not in use (meaning not being read or written to), which sequentially fills never-written parts of the disc with blank data to make them able to be written to randomly.[46]

DVD-RAM

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Main article: DVD-RAM

As RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it works more or less like a hard-drive and was designed for corporate back-up use. Developed in 1996, DVD-RAM is a rewritable optical disc originally encased in a cartridge. Currently available in standard 4.7 GB (and sometimes in other sizes), it is useful in applications that require quick revisions and rewriting. It can only be read in drives that are DVD-RAM compatible, which all multi-format drives are. DVD Forum backs this format. It uses physical dedicated sector markers (visible as rectangles on the read side of the disc) instead of the pre-pits or wobbles used in other types of recordable and rewritable media.

Multi-format drives can read and write more than one format; e.g. DVD±R(W) (DVD plus-dash recordable and rewritable) is used to refer to drives that can write/rewrite both plus and dash formats, but not necessarily DVD-RAM. Drives marked "DVD Multi Recorder" support DVD±R(W) and DVD-RAM.[26]

The "RAM" from DVD-RAM is not related to the random-access memory in which a computer stores opened programs.

Sizes

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DVD recordable media are sold in two standard sizes, a regular 12 cm (5 in) size for home recording and computer usage, and a small 8 cm (3 in) size (sometimes known as a miniDVD) for use in compact camcorders. The smaller Mini DVD-RW, for example, holds 1.46 GB.[47]

Speed

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See also: DVD § Transfer rates
Drive speed Data rate Disc write time Equivalent CD rate Reading speed
1× 11.08 Mbit/s 1.385 MB/s 53 min 9× 8×–18×
2× 22.16 Mbit/s 2.770 MB/s 27 min 18× 20×–24×
4× 44.32 Mbit/s 5.540 MB/s 14 min 36× 24×–32×
5× 55.40 Mbit/s 6.925 MB/s 11 min 45× 24×–32×
6× 66.48 Mbit/s 8.310 MB/s 9 min 54× 24×–32×
8× 88.64 Mbit/s 11.080 MB/s 7 min 72× 32×–40×
10× 110.80 Mbit/s 13.850 MB/s 6 min 90× 32×–40×
16× 177.28 Mbit/s 22.160 MB/s 4 min 144× 32×–40×
18× 199.44 Mbit/s 24.930 MB/s 3 min 162× 32×–40×
20× 221.60 Mbit/s 27.700 MB/s 2 min 180× 32×–40×
24× 265.92 Mbit/s 33.240 MB/s 2 min 216× 32×–48×

Notes:

  • The rotation speed of DVD at ×1 CAV (~580 rpm) is around three times as high as CD at ×1 (~200 rpm)
  • Disc write time in table does not include overhead, leadout, etc.

The following table describes the maximal speed of DVD-R and the relative typical write time for a full disc according to the reviews from cdrinfo.com and cdfreaks.com. Many reviews of multiple brand names on varying conditions of hardware and DVD give much lower and wider measurements than the optimal numbers below.

The write time may vary (± 30 s) between writer and media used. For high speed, the write strategy changes from constant linear velocity (CLV) to constant angular velocity (CAV), or zoned constant linear velocity (ZCLV). The table below largely assumes CAV.

Drive speed Data rate (MB/s) Data rate (Mbit/s) Write time for single-layer DVD-R
1× 1.32 10.56 1 hour
2× 2.64 21.12 30 minutes (CLV)
4× 5.28 42.24 15 minutes (CLV)
8× 10.56 84.48 8 minutes (ZCLV)
16× 21.12 168.96 5 min 45 sec (CAV)
18× 23.76 190.08 5 min 30 sec (CAV)
20× 26.40 211.20 5 minutes (CAV)
22× 29.04 232.32 4 min 30 sec (CAV)
24×[48] 31.68 253.44 ~4 minutes (CAV)

Adoption

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Some half-height DVD Multi Recorder drives released since 2007, such as the TSSTcorp SH-S203/TS-H653B (2007) have officially adapted support for writing speeds of up to 12× on DVD-R DL and 16× on DVD+R DL (on recordable media by selected vendors only), while more recent DVD writers such as the SH-224DB (2013) and Blu-ray writers such as the LG BE16NU50 (2016) have restricted the supported DVD±R DL writing speed to 8×.[11][12]

Capacities

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See also: DVD § Capacity

Most DVD±R/RWs are advertised using the definition of 1 gigabyte = 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes.[49] This can be confusing for many users since a 4.7 GB (4.7 billion bytes) DVD that is advertised as such might show up on their device as having 4.38 GiB (depending on what type of prefixes their device uses).[50]

Format Decimal Capacity Binary Capacity
DVD±R 4.70 GB 4.38 GiB
DVD±RW 4.70 GB 4.38 GiB
DVD±R DL 8.55 GB 8.15 GiB
DVD-RAM 4.70 GB 4.38 GiB
MiniDVD 1.46 GB 1.39 GiB
MiniDVD DL 2.66 GB 2.54 GiB

Quality and longevity

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See also: Optical disc recording technologies § Longevity, and DVD § Disc quality measurements

According to a study published in 2008 by the Preservation Research and Testing Division of the U.S. Library of Congress, most recordable CD products have a higher probability of greater longevity compared to recordable DVD products.[51] A series of follow-up studies conducted by the Canadian Conservation Institute in 2019 revealed that CD-R with phthalocyanine-dye and a gold-metal layer had the greatest longevity at over 100 years when stored at ideal temperature and humidity-levels. The second longest was DVD-R (gold-metal layer) with an average longevity of 50-100 years under ideal conditions. CD-R with phthalocyanine and a silver-metal-alloy layer also scored an average longevity of 50-100 years, however, the researchers noted that if the storage environment contains pollutants any CD-Rs that used a silver layer would likely degrade faster than discs with a gold layer. The researchers concluded the silver layer discs may not be a suitable solution for applications where longevity is important.[52] Both CD-R and DVD-R outperformed all forms of Blu-ray disc in regards to longevity: the best performing Blu-ray disc, the BD-RE (rewritable Blu-ray) has an average longevity of 20-50 years, while non-rewritable BD-R discs have an average longevity of 10-20 years under ideal conditions.[52]

Media of higher quality tends to last longer. Using surface error scanning, the rate of correctable errors can be measured. A higher rate of errors indicates media of lower quality and/or deteriorating media. It may also indicate scratches and/or data written by a defective optical drive.

Not all optical drive models are able to scan the disc quality.[53]

Disc structure

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R format

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DVD-R discs are composed of two 0.6 mm acrylic discs, bonded with an adhesive to each other. One contains the laser guiding groove and is coated with the recording dye and a silver alloy or gold reflector. The other one (for single-sided discs) is an ungrooved "dummy" disc to assure mechanical stability of the sandwich structure, and compatibility with the compact disc standard geometry which requires a total disc thickness of about 1.2 mm. The sandwich structure also helps protect the layer containing data from scratches with a thick "dummy" disc, a problem with CDs, which lack that structure. Double-sided discs have two grooved, recordable disc sides, and require the user to flip the disc to access the other side. Compared to a CD's 1.2 mm thickness, a DVD's laser beam only has to penetrate 0.6 mm of plastic in order to reach the dye recording layer, which allows the lens to focus the beam to a smaller spot size to write smaller pits.

In a DVD-R, the addressing (the determination of location of the laser beam on the disc) is done with additional pits and lands (called land pre-pits) in the areas between the grooves. The groove on a DVD-R disc has a constant wobble frequency of 140.6 kHz used for motor control, etc.

In 2011, JVC announced an archival DVD recording medium manufactured with quality control and inspection frequencies techniques greater than is traditionally used in media manufacturing, and using specially developed silver alloy as a reflective layer and organic dye with in-house developed additives to secure long-term data retention.[54]

RW format

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The recording layer in DVD-RW and DVD+RW is not an organic dye, but a special phase change metal alloy, often GeSbTe. The alloy can be switched back and forth between a crystalline phase and an amorphous phase, changing the reflectivity, depending on the power of the laser beam. Data can thus be written, erased and re-written.[55]

Dual layer

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In October 2003, it was demonstrated that double layer technology could be used with a DVD+R disc to nearly double the capacity to 8.5 GB per disc.[56] At around that time, similar dual-layer technology was in development for the DVD-R format.[57] The dual layer version of DVD-R, DVD-R DL, appeared on the market in 2005.[citation needed]

A specification for dual-layer DVD-RW discs with a capacity of 8.5 GB (8,500,000,000 bytes) was approved by the DVD Forum,[58] and JVC announced their development of the first media in the format in 2005.[59] A double-layer DVD+RW specification was approved in March 2006 with a capacity of 8.5 GB.[60] However, manufacturing support for these rewritable dual-layer discs did not materialize due to costs and expected competition from newer and higher-capacity formats like Blu-ray and HD DVD.

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

DVD recordable

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DVD recordable encompasses a series of optical disc formats developed for writing data using compatible DVD drives, enabling both one-time recording and rewritability for storage of video, audio, and computer files. These formats include write-once variants such as DVD-R and DVD+R, which use an organic dye layer altered by laser to record data permanently, and rewritable options like DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM, which employ phase-change materials for multiple erasures and re-recordings. Standard single-layer discs hold approximately 4.7 GB of data, equivalent to about two hours of standard-definition video, while dual-layer versions like DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL double this to 8.5 GB. The development of DVD recordable formats began in the late as an extension of read-only DVD technology, with DVD-R first introduced by Pioneer in 1997 under the auspices of the , a of electronics companies responsible for standardizing DVD specifications. The approved DVD-R and DVD-RW as official formats in Books D and E of the DVD standard, while DVD-RAM evolved from earlier versions starting with 2.6 GB capacity in 1998. In response, the competing DVD+RW Alliance—comprising companies like , , and —launched DVD+R and DVD+RW in 2002 as alternative standards not endorsed by the , emphasizing features like defect management and higher compatibility in consumer devices through "booktyping" to mimic read-only DVDs. Despite initial format wars, most modern DVD drives support all variants, though playback compatibility varies, with DVD+R often requiring adjustments for optimal performance in older players. Key technical aspects include the use of the Universal Disk Format (UDF) for data organization, laser wavelengths around 650 nm for recording, and varying speeds from 1x (1.32 MB/s) to higher rates like 16x for faster writes. stands out for its random-access design similar to hard drives, supporting up to 9.4 GB on double-sided discs, but it has lower compatibility with video players compared to sequential formats like DVD-R and . These formats revolutionized recording and data backup in the early , bridging the gap between CDs and higher-capacity media like Blu-ray, though their use has declined with the rise of streaming and .

Introduction

Comparison with Recordable CDs

DVD recordable media, like recordable CDs (CD-R and CD-RW), employ a laser-based to etch onto an organic dye layer within the disc's substrate, creating reflective pits and lands that can be read by optical drives. However, DVDs achieve significantly higher through the use of a shorter-wavelength red at 650 nm, compared to the 780 nm near-infrared used for CDs, which allows for smaller pit sizes and tighter . A standard single-layer DVD-R disc offers a capacity of 4.7 GB, roughly seven times that of a typical CD-R's 700 MB, enabling the storage of full-length feature films or extensive data archives on a single disc, whereas CDs were limited to audio albums or modest file sets. This capacity leap transformed consumer media handling, shifting from CDs' primary role in music distribution to DVDs' support for high-quality video content. Initial writing speeds for DVDs were also markedly faster, with 1x speed equating to 1.32 MB/s—about nine times the 150 KB/s of 1x—allowing quicker recording sessions that evolved to support multiples like 16x over time, though optimal burns often remained at lower speeds for reliability. Both technologies include write-once () and rewritable (RW) variants, but DVD formats expanded beyond CDs' audio and basic data focus to enable widespread home video recording and playback.

Overview of Recordable and Rewritable Formats

DVD recordable formats encompass a range of technologies designed for user-initiated data writing, including write-once variants (denoted by "R") that allow a single recording session and rewritable variants (denoted by "RW") that permit multiple erasures and overwrites. These discs primarily employ two recording mechanisms: dye-based layers, where a alters an organic dye to form reflective pits for permanent in write-once formats, and phase-change layers, where heat reversibly switches the material between crystalline and amorphous states to enable in RW formats. The core variants include DVD-R and DVD-RW, standardized by the as write-once and rewritable options using dye and phase-change technologies, respectively; and DVD+RW, developed by the rival DVD+RW Alliance with similar mechanisms but incorporating advanced defect management in the latter for improved reliability; and , a DVD Forum rewritable format utilizing phase-change recording on both land and groove areas of the disc for enhanced random access. This competition between the —an industry group led by companies like and —and the DVD+RW Alliance—backed by , (in a dual role), and HP—resulted in parallel standards that coexisted to address diverse market needs. These formats serve distinct purposes: R variants like DVD-R and are suited for archival applications such as one-time video or data backup, offering stable long-term storage; RW formats like DVD-RW and DVD+RW facilitate and iterative recording for temporary or revised content; and supports computer-like random read/write operations, ideal for and frequent access. Single-layer discs in these formats typically provide 4.7 GB of capacity, sufficient for approximately two hours of standard video.

History and Development

Origins from DVD Standards

The development of DVD recordable technologies originated from the foundational DVD standard established by the DVD Consortium, a group of leading electronics companies including , , , Matsushita, Pioneer, Time Warner, , and . In December 1995, the Consortium finalized the specifications for DVD-ROM and formats, focusing initially on read-only applications for high-capacity video and data storage, with a single-layer capacity of 4.7 GB per side. This standard laid the groundwork for subsequent recordable extensions by defining core physical and signal parameters, such as the 120 mm disc diameter and laser wavelength of 650 nm. Recordable DVD formats emerged as extensions to this read-only foundation, with the —formed in May 1997 as an evolution of the Consortium to broaden industry participation—proposing the first specifications for DVD-R in that year. Developed primarily by Pioneer, the DVD-R format adapted the DVD-ROM's robust error correction using Reed-Solomon product codes (RS-PC), which provided enhanced burst error correction over the CD's CIRC method, enabling reliable at higher densities. Additionally, the 8-to-16 modulation scheme (EFMPlus), which more efficiently encodes data into pits and lands compared to the CD's 8-to-14 (EFM), was incorporated to support writing operations while maintaining compatibility with read-only players. These innovations drew heavily from dye technology, where organic dye layers (such as or compounds) alter reflectivity under laser exposure; companies like Pioneer and refined this for DVD by optimizing dye formulations for the shorter 650 nm laser, allowing precise pit formation in the recordable layer. Early prototypes of DVD-R were demonstrated in 1997 by Pioneer, showcasing recording at 1x speed (approximately 1.32 MB/s) using the DVR-S101 drive, targeted initially at professional video authoring for set-top recorders and nonlinear editing systems. This focus on video recording stemmed from the need to extend DVD-Video's broadcast-quality capabilities to consumer and professional duplication, with the format ensuring seamless playback on existing DVD-ROM drives. The initial demonstrations emphasized single-layer write-once media for applications like one-off , bridging the gap between read-only distribution and customizable recording. Standardization of these recordable extensions was advanced by international bodies, with adopting the DVD-R specifications in ECMA-279 (first edition, December 1998), which detailed mechanical, physical, and optical parameters for 120 mm and 80 mm discs with 3.95 GB and 1.23 GB capacities, respectively. This ECMA standard was subsequently harmonized with ISO/IEC 20563, ensuring global and compatibility with the broader DVD . These efforts by ECMA and ISO formalized the adaptations from DVD-ROM, solidifying DVD-R as the pioneering recordable format before competing variants like emerged in the early .

Format Competition and Standardization

The development of DVD recordable formats was marked by intense competition between two primary camps: the , which promoted the DVD-R standard starting in 1997 and DVD-RW in 1999, and the DVD+RW Alliance, formed in 1997 by companies including , , , and Yamaha to develop alternative specifications. The 's formats, led by Pioneer's DVD-R authoring drive in 1997 and consumer versions by 2001, aimed for seamless integration with existing standards. In contrast, the DVD+RW Alliance launched DVD+RW in late 2001 and in 2002, motivated by desires to avoid certain DVD Forum royalties, enhance random-access writing for data applications, and improve overall compatibility with DVD players through features like defect management. This echoed earlier format wars, creating parallel ecosystems that fragmented the market. Key milestones in the competition included the introduction of the first multi-format DVD drives in 2002, such as Sony's DRU-500A, which supported both DVD-R/RW and /RW, signaling a shift toward convergence. By the mid-2000s, most PC manufacturers adopted multi-format drives to address consumer needs. The competition peaked around 2005, when DVD-R held 42% market share for write-once media and 41%, reflecting near parity but also ongoing consumer confusion over incompatible media. Innovations like BitSetting technology, introduced in DVD+ drives around 2002, allowed recorded discs to mimic the booktype of DVD-R or DVD-ROM, boosting playback compatibility in standalone players from about 85% to over 90%. Standardization efforts culminated in 2008 when the DVD6C licensing group, representing major patent holders, officially accepted and DVD+RW as part of the DVD family, effectively ending the format war and ensuring universal drive support. This convergence reduced development costs and simplified manufacturing, though early rivalry had fragmented production. Meanwhile, pursued a separate path under the , focusing on high-capacity rewritable applications like video recording but achieving limited adoption outside specific devices.

Primary Formats

DVD-R and DVD-RW

DVD-R is a write-once format standardized by the , utilizing an organic dye recording layer, such as , to enable permanent data storage through laser-induced changes in reflectivity. The format supports single-session recording, where data is written sequentially without the ability to append or overwrite after finalization. Version 1.0, released in 1997 by Pioneer, offered a capacity of 3.95 GB and was initially targeted at professional authoring applications. Version 2.0, introduced in 2000, increased the capacity to 4.7 GB and split into authoring and general (consumer) variants to broaden accessibility. DVD-RW, the rewritable counterpart to DVD-R, employs a phase-change metal recording layer that allows to be erased and rewritten by altering the material's crystalline state with heat. This technology supports up to approximately 1,000 rewrite cycles before signal degradation impacts reliability. Version 1.0 was standardized in 1999 with a 4.7 GB capacity, followed by version 1.1 in 2000, which introduced improvements in writing speeds. For video applications, DVD-RW offers two compatibility modes: Video mode for seamless playback in standard players, and VR (Video Recording) mode for advanced editing and multi-session features in compatible recorders. The primary distinction between DVD-R and DVD-RW lies in their permanence: DVD-R's dye-based layer prevents overwriting or erasure once written, ensuring archival stability, while DVD-RW's phase-change mechanism enables repeated modifications at the cost of reduced longevity per cycle. Both formats operate using constant linear velocity (CLV) during writing to maintain consistent data density across the disc. In the early 2000s, DVD-R and DVD-RW dominated consumer DVD recorders, particularly for capturing and archiving broadcast television content due to their strong compatibility with existing DVD players. These DVD Forum-backed "dash" formats competed with the rival DVD+R and DVD+RW standards promoted by the DVD+RW Alliance, which emphasized enhanced drive compatibility features.

DVD+R and DVD+RW

DVD+R is a write-once format developed by the DVD+RW Alliance, utilizing dye-based recording technology to store data permanently on a 4.7 GB single-layer disc. Introduced in 2002, it features background formatting capabilities that allow users to begin writing data immediately while the drive completes formatting in the background, enhancing for sequential recording tasks. The format's specifications evolved through versions, with Version 1.1 released in August 2002 focusing on physical standards, and subsequent updates like Version 1.3 in 2005 introducing improved handling mechanisms to boost recording reliability and compatibility with consumer devices. DVD+RW, the rewritable counterpart, employs phase-change recording on a metallic layer, enabling data to be erased and rewritten more than 1,000 times before significant degradation occurs, making it suitable for repeated use in dynamic storage scenarios. Launched in 2001 under Version 1.0 specifications, which emphasized defect management and physical formatting, the format advanced to Version 1.2 in 2004 to support higher writing speeds up to 4x, reducing recording times while maintaining . A key advantage is the immediate visibility of written data to the operating system and applications, eliminating the need for a finalization wait common in other rewritable formats and simulating seamless drag-and-drop file access similar to hard drives. The DVD+ formats incorporate innovations such as hardware-level defect management, where the drive automatically detects and remaps faulty sectors during writing to ensure robust data storage without software intervention. Additionally, overspeed burning allows compatible drives to exceed the disc's rated speed—for instance, writing at up to 12x on media rated for 8x—accelerating the process while leveraging advanced error correction for reliable results. These features were designed to prioritize compatibility with existing DVD playback hardware and performance in personal computing environments. In practice, DVD+R and DVD+RW gained popularity for PC-based data backup and archiving, offering intuitive drag-and-drop simplicity that made them preferable for general users over more specialized formats, though they emerged amid format competition with DVD Forum-backed alternatives like .

DVD-RAM

DVD-RAM discs utilize a distinctive alternating land and groove recording structure, in contrast to the continuous spiral groove employed by other DVD formats. This design permits data inscription on both the lands (raised areas) and grooves (recessed tracks), which enhances performance by mimicking the sector-based organization of magnetic hard drives. The structure also supports advanced defect management through slipping and defect mapping techniques, where defective sectors are identified and remapped to spare areas during initial formatting or ongoing use, thereby maintaining data reliability across repeated operations. Early implementations included protective cartridges to shield the disc from dust, scratches, and handling damage, though later versions transitioned to cartridge-free designs for broader compatibility. The format evolved through several versions to improve capacity and . Version 1.0, standardized in 1997 and commercially available from 1998, offered 2.6 GB per side for single-sided use or 5.2 GB double-sided. Version 2.0, introduced in 2000, boosted capacity to 4.7 GB per side, enabling up to 9.4 GB for double-sided discs. By version 5.0 in 2005, the focus shifted to higher writing speeds while retaining these capacities. DVD-RAM media is engineered for exceptional durability, supporting up to 100,000 rewrite cycles per sector without significant degradation. Key technical features include Zone Constant Linear Velocity (ZCLV) recording, which partitions the disc into multiple zones where the linear speed remains constant within each but varies between zones to optimize seek times and enable efficient random writes. This contrasts with pure Constant Linear Velocity (CLV) by reducing rotational speed variations, thus accelerating access to non-sequential data blocks. Additionally, DVD-RAM mandates the Universal Disk Format (UDF) , which provides a packet-based structure optimized for , facilitating seamless integration with computer operating systems for file storage and management. In practice, excels as a medium, functioning as a robust alternative to hard drives for backups, document archiving, and frequent data exchanges due to its high rewrite endurance and quick . However, its specialized structure results in limited compatibility with standard players, making it less suitable for consumer video recording and playback compared to formats like DVD-RW.

Physical Specifications

Disc Sizes and Capacities

DVD recordable discs adhere to standardized physical dimensions established by international bodies, ensuring compatibility across devices. The most common format is the full-size disc with a diameter of 120 mm and a thickness of 1.2 mm, constructed by bonding two 0.6 mm polycarbonate substrates. This design maintains the same outer dimensions as compact discs while enabling higher data density through a tighter spiral track and shorter laser reading. A standard single-sided, single-layer DVD recordable disc offers a capacity of 4.7 GB (equivalent to 4.38 GiB in binary terms), sufficient for storing up to about two hours of standard-definition video—far exceeding the 700 MB limit of a recordable . Double-sided variants double this to 9.4 GB by utilizing both surfaces, though they require manual flipping in most players. For higher capacities, dual-layer discs employ two recordable layers on a single side, achieving 8.5 GB without increasing physical size, achieved through semi-reflective layers that allow laser penetration to the deeper layer. Double-sided dual-layer discs reach 17.0 GB, though these are less common in consumer recordable media. These capacities apply uniformly to write-once (e.g., DVD-R, DVD+R) and rewritable (e.g., DVD-RW, DVD+RW) formats, as the base storage potential is determined by the disc's structure rather than its rewritability. A smaller variant, the , measures 80 mm in diameter with the same 1.2 mm thickness, primarily used in compact devices like camcorders for portability. It provides 1.46 GB per single-sided, single-layer side, with double-sided options at 2.92 GB, scaling proportionally for dual-layer configurations up to 5.32 GB. The effective capacity of DVD recordable discs is primarily influenced by the number of sides (single or double) and layers (single or dual) per side, with no inherent difference between recordable formats in terms of maximum storage potential. All variants share a central hub diameter of at least 15 mm to fit standard drives. DVD recordable formats define writing speeds relative to a of 1x, equivalent to 1.32 MB/s, which supports real-time video recording of approximately 60 minutes on a single-layer disc. Early DVD-R drives employed Constant Linear Velocity (CLV) or partial variations like CaCLV to maintain consistent data density across the disc, while DVD-RW and used Zone CLV (ZCLV) to balance speed and reliability during rewrites. Speeds progressed rapidly, reaching 16x (about 21 MB/s) for DVD-R and DVD+R by 2004-2005, whereas DVD-RW and typically topped out at 6x and 5x respectively in common commercial drives due to and material constraints in rewritable layers. These speed advancements significantly reduced recording times; for instance, a standard 4.7 GB single-layer disc took roughly 1 hour at 1x but only about 4 minutes at 16x. However, exceeding a disc's rated speed—known as overspeeding—often resulted in increased error rates, disc failures (), and reduced longevity, as the layers and calibration struggled with heat buildup. Adoption of DVD recordable drives began slowly, with fewer than 1% of PCs equipped in 2000, reflecting shipments of around 600,000 units amid limited availability and high costs. By the mid-2000s, multi-format DVD writers had become standard in the majority of new PC shipments, driven by falling prices and broader software support. Post-2010, adoption declined sharply as streaming services like proliferated and USB flash drives offered faster, more convenient alternatives for data transfer. As of 2023, optical drives are largely optional in new PCs, with shipments of DVD writers continuing only for niche markets like archival storage. Key factors accelerating uptake included dramatic price drops, from several hundred dollars per drive in the early to under $50 by the mid-, making them accessible for consumer PCs. Initial delays stemmed from compatibility challenges during the format wars between DVD-R/-RW and DVD+R/+RW camps, which fragmented media availability and drive support until multi-format drives resolved the issue around 2004.

Technical Aspects

Disc Structure and Layering

DVD recordable discs feature a multilayer construction designed for optical and retrieval using a . The base consists of a transparent substrate approximately 0.6 mm thick, which provides mechanical support and allows the beam to pass through to the recording layer. Over this substrate lies the recording layer, followed by a metallic reflective layer (typically aluminum or silver ) that bounces the light back to the detector, and a protective coating on top to shield against environmental damage. The overall disc thickness is 1.2 mm, achieved by bonding two 0.6 mm substrates for double-sided variants, though single-sided configurations are common for recordable media. The recording layer varies by format to enable write-once or rewritable functionality. In DVD-R and DVD+R formats, it employs an organic dye (such as or azo compounds) that undergoes a chemical change when heated by the , forming opaque pits or marks that alter reflectivity and encode data. In contrast, DVD-RW and DVD+RW use a phase-change (often Ag-In-Sb-Te) sandwiched between layers, where data is stored via reversible transitions between crystalline (reflective) and amorphous (less reflective) states induced by precise heating and cooling cycles. These single-layer configurations provide a standard capacity of 4.7 GB per side, with the substrate's 0.6 mm thickness optimizing focus for the 650 nm . Data is organized along a continuous spiral groove molded into the substrate, known as the pre-groove, which guides the laser beam with a track pitch of 0.74 μm. This groove incorporates a slight wobble—a sinusoidal deviation—for servo control and timing across all formats. In DVD-R and DVD-RW, additional addressing is provided by land pre-pits (LPP), small embossed pits on the lands between groove turns that encode sector addresses and synchronization data. DVD+R and DVD+RW rely instead on modulated wobble (e.g., at 817 kHz) to embed timing and address information without LPP, enabling more flexible recording. At the data level, information is divided into sectors of 2,048 bytes of user each, grouped into (ECC) blocks containing 16 sectors for enhanced reliability using Reed-Solomon coding. Disc rotation employs constant linear velocity (CLV) to maintain a uniform rate of approximately 3.49 m/s, with the spindle speed varying from about 2,300 rpm at the inner radius to 1,000 rpm at the outer edge. Dual-layer recording extends this structure by adding a second semi-transparent recording layer, increasing capacity without altering the core single-layer principles.

Dual-Layer Recording

Dual-layer recording for DVD recordable discs employs two separate recording layers—dye-based for or phase-change for DVD+RW variants—separated by a semi-reflective layer that allows the to penetrate and access both. The first layer (Layer 0) is positioned at approximately 0.6 mm from the disc surface, while the second layer (Layer 1) resides deeper at a total disc thickness of 1.2 mm, enabling the to refocus between layers during read and write operations. The primary configuration for dual-layer DVD-R and DVD+R discs is Opposite Track Path (OTP), where recording begins on Layer 0 from the inner radius and spirals outward, then jumps to Layer 1 near the outer rim and spirals inward upon completion of the first layer; Parallel Track Path (PTP) is less common and typically reserved for specific ROM applications rather than widespread recordable use. This OTP approach facilitates seamless transitions for video playback and recording, starting on the closer Layer 0 before switching to Layer 1. Dual-layer formats were introduced with in mid-2004 and in early 2005, primarily to support extended video backups exceeding the 4.7 GB limit of single-layer discs. A key challenge in dual-layer recording is the transparency of Layer 0, which must remain semi-reflective yet sufficiently clear for the to reach Layer 1 without excessive signal loss; as a result, Layer 0 is typically limited to about 80% of its full potential capacity to maintain of the deeper layer. Writing speeds for dual-layer discs are constrained compared to single-layer, generally topping out at 4x to 8x maximum due to the complexities of layer switching and layer interactions, though early implementations often operated at 2.4x.

Quality, Longevity, and Compatibility

DVD recordable discs achieve data quality through adherence to international standards that specify error correction and physical characteristics. The primary quality metric for single-layer DVD±R discs is the Parity Inner Error Rate 8 (PI8), which measures averaged errors over eight ECC blocks; the maximum allowable PI8 is 280, though initial rates below 50 are preferred for optimal readability. Higher error rates can result from poor manufacturing, such as inferior organic dyes or reflective layers, while gold metal layers in DVD-R discs provide superior corrosion resistance compared to silver alloys in DVD+R. Recording at moderate speeds (4× to 8×) with compatible drives minimizes defects, as excessive speeds can introduce jitter and increase PI errors. These standards are defined in ECMA-359 for DVD-R and ECMA-349 for DVD+R, ensuring interoperability and reliability when discs meet ISO/IEC specifications for optical characteristics. Longevity of DVD recordable media varies by format, composition, and storage conditions, with projections based on accelerated aging tests simulating environmental stressors like , , and UV exposure. Under recommended conditions (ISO 18925: cool, dry, dark storage at 18–22°C and 40–50% relative humidity), write-once DVD-R and discs with high-quality dyes and reflective layers can last 50–200 years or more, though silver-alloy variants may degrade to 10–50 years due to oxidation. Rewritable DVD-RW and DVD+RW discs, relying on phase-change alloys, have shorter lifespans of 5–25 years, further reduced by repeated (up to 1,000 cycles) which accelerates . Factors like manufacturing date (post-2000 preferred) and brand reputation influence durability, as evidenced by studies showing error rate increases after 10–30 years in suboptimal environments. The Library of Congress's ongoing research underscores the need for periodic verification to mitigate data loss from dye degradation. Compatibility among DVD recordable formats is high in modern drives but varies with legacy playback devices. Most contemporary DVD writers support reading and writing all major formats—DVD-R/RW, DVD+R/RW, and —allowing seamless interchangeability for . However, stand-alone DVD players exhibit format-specific playback rates: DVD-R discs achieve 90–95% compatibility, benefiting from early adoption and finalization requirements, while DVD+R reaches 85–90%, improved by booktype setting to mimic stamped DVDs. DVD-RW and DVD+RW have more limited support in older players (around 70–80%), often requiring finalization for recognition, and shows the lowest compatibility outside dedicated recorders due to its sector structure. Dual-layer variants like maintain similar rates to their single-layer counterparts when using compatible hardware. These differences stem from competing standards developed by the (DVD-R lineage) and DVD+RW Alliance, resolved partially through multi-format drives since the mid-2000s.

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