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Polysorbate
Polysorbate
Polysorbate
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Polysorbate 20, a compound used as a food additive in some pudding mixes to prevent scorching during preparation

Polysorbates are a class of emulsifiers used in some pharmaceuticals and food preparation. They are commonly used in oral and topical pharmaceutical dosage forms. They are also often used in cosmetics to solubilize essential oils into water-based products. Polysorbates are oily liquids derived from ethoxylated sorbitan (a derivative of sorbitol) esterified with fatty acids. Common brand names for polysorbates include Hedjuvan, Kolliphor,[1] Scattics, Alkest, Canarcel, Tween,[2] and Kotilen.

Examples

[edit]
  • Polysorbate 20 (polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate)
  • Polysorbate 40 (polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate)
  • Polysorbate 60 (polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monostearate)
  • Polysorbate 80 (polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate)

The number following the 'polysorbate' part is related to the type of major fatty acid associated with the molecule. Monolaurate is indicated by 20, monopalmitate is indicated by 40, monostearate by 60, and monooleate by 80. The number 20 following the 'polyoxyethylene' part refers to the total number of oxyethylene (–CH2CH2O–) groups found in the molecule.

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Polysorbate

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Polysorbates are a family of synthetic nonionic consisting of polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters of s, such as , , , or , derived from the dehydration of (a ) and subsequent . These compounds, often referred to by their trade names like Tween, are amphipathic molecules that exhibit both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties, enabling them to stabilize emulsions and dispersions effectively. Common variants include (derived from ), polysorbate 40 (palmitic acid), polysorbate 60 (stearic acid), and (oleic acid), each differing in their fatty acid, with approximately 20 units. In the , polysorbates function as emulsifiers, stabilizers, and solubilizers, permitting the uniform mixing of oil and water-based ingredients in products such as , salad dressings, and baked goods, with approved usage levels up to 0.4% in many formulations. They are also widely employed in and as to enhance texture, foaming, and , often at concentrations of 0.1% to 25%. In pharmaceuticals, particularly biotherapeutics, polysorbates like and 20 serve as critical stabilizers to protect proteins from aggregation, adsorption to surfaces, and denaturation during , storage, and administration, making them essential in vaccines, injectables, and formulations. Regulatorily, polysorbates are recognized as safe for their intended uses by agencies such as the U.S. (FDA) and the Agency (EPA), with exemptions from tolerances when used as inert ingredients and affirmative listings as direct food additives under 21 CFR 172.836 and 172.840. Despite their utility, concerns regarding their oxidative degradation—leading to potential impurities like peroxides—and reactions in sensitive populations have prompted ongoing research into alternatives and improved stabilization strategies.

Chemistry

Structure

Polysorbates are a class of nonionic derived from ethoxylated sorbitan esters of s. The core structure features a ring, the dehydrated form of with molecular formula \ceC6H12O5\ce{C6H12O5}, to which polyoxyethylene chains—typically comprising about 20 units—are attached at the available hydroxyl groups through bonds, while a single is esterified at one position. This ring structure arises from the intramolecular dehydration of , resulting in a five-membered cyclic with four hydroxyl groups available for modification. The molecular architecture of polysorbates confers an amphiphilic character, with the polyoxyethylene chains serving as the hydrophilic head and the esterified acting as the hydrophobic tail, enabling their role as emulsifiers. The general formula representation extends the sorbitan core by (\ceOCH2CH2)n(\ce{OCH2CH2})_n where n≈20n \approx 20, combined with \ceRCOO−\ce{RCOO-} where R denotes the alkyl of the . Variations in isomerism stem from the multiple hydroxyl positions on the ring, leading to a complex mixture of positional and stereoisomers during and esterification, as well as contributions from both 1,4- and 1,6-isosorbide forms.

Types and properties

Polysorbates are a family of nonionic consisting of esters of various s ethoxylated with approximately 20 moles of . The most common variants are distinguished by the component, which influences their physical and chemical properties. The primary types include , derived from (C12:0); Polysorbate 40, from (C16:0); Polysorbate 60, from (C18:0 saturated); and , from (C18:1 unsaturated). These are widely known by their trade names Tween 20, Tween 40, Tween 60, and Tween 80, respectively, marketed by Croda International Plc. Key properties vary by type, as summarized below:
TypeFatty AcidHLB ValueAppearanceSolubilityDensity (g/cm³)Approximate Molar Mass (g/mol)
Polysorbate 2016.7Clear yellow to Water, ,
Polysorbate 4015.6Viscous oily liquid or pasteWater, ~
Polysorbate 6014.9Waxy solid or semigel at room temperatureWater, ~~
Polysorbate 8015.0Water,
These properties are derived from manufacturer specifications and safety assessments. Differences in hydrophile-lipophilic balance (HLB) values, ranging from 14.9 to 16.7, determine their emulsification efficacy, with higher HLB favoring oil-in-water emulsions due to greater hydrophilicity. Polysorbate 20, with the highest HLB, exhibits the lowest viscosity and broadest solubility in polar solvents, making it ideal for applications requiring high dispersibility. In contrast, Polysorbate 60's lower HLB and waxy consistency at ambient temperatures reduce its fluidity but enhance stability in semi-solid formulations. Viscosity increases with chain length and saturation, as seen in Polysorbate 80's higher density and amber hue compared to the clearer Polysorbate 20. All types are fully soluble in water, though organic solvent compatibility varies slightly with the fatty acid moiety.

Synthesis

Raw materials

Polysorbates are semi-synthetic nonionic derived from natural raw materials that undergo chemical modification during production. The primary starting material is , a obtained through the high-pressure catalytic of glucose derived from or produced via glucose processes. For the formation of sorbitan intermediates, dehydration agents such as are employed as catalysts to facilitate the removal of water from . Esterification of these intermediates involves fatty acids sourced from vegetable or animal fats, including primarily from or oils, palmitic and stearic acids from or , and from or oils. Ethoxylation introduces the polyoxyethylene chains using ethylene oxide, which is industrially produced via the direct partial oxidation of ethylene with oxygen or air. To ensure vegan or animal-free formulations, plant-based sourcing of fatty acids from vegetable oils is increasingly prioritized over animal-derived options like tallow. These raw materials play a foundational role in the overall synthesis of polysorbates, enabling their amphiphilic properties for various applications.

Manufacturing process

The manufacturing process of polysorbates begins with the dehydration of to produce . This step involves heating , typically as a 70-80% , at 120-200°C under reduced with an acid catalyst such as , , or (0.5-5% by weight of ), which promotes the formation of cyclic anhydrides like 1,4-sorbitan while minimizing side products such as . The is then subjected to by base-catalyzed addition of , usually approximately 20 moles of ethylene oxide per mole of sorbitan, to introduce polyoxyethylene chains that enhance hydrophilicity. This reaction occurs at 90-170°C using a base such as an C1-C4 , , or (0.1-2.0% by weight), with the ethylene oxide added at a controlled rate to manage exotherms and achieve a target of 145-155 mg KOH/g. Subsequently, esterification of the ethoxylated sorbitan is performed with fatty acid derivatives to form the final , selectively producing a mono-ester at one of the remaining hydroxyl groups. Although industrial processes commonly use free s like (purity ≥90%, weight ratio 1:0.28-0.35 to the ethoxylate) under basic (e.g., or , 0.1-2.0% by weight) at 80-240°C for 6-12 hours, variants employ fatty acid chlorides or anhydrides for improved selectivity and reaction control. Purification follows to isolate the product and ensure compliance with quality standards, involving neutralization of catalysts, removal of unreacted materials, and control of residues (typically reduced to <1 ppm) and dioxane byproducts. Methods include traditional refining such as decolorization, under reduced pressure, and adsorption using molecular sieves to eliminate impurities while maintaining batch-to-batch consistency. The process can be conducted in batch or continuous modes, with the latter offering advantages in scalability for large-scale production. Yields generally range from 80-90%, depending on reaction optimization and purification efficiency. This synthesis route was historically developed in the 1940s by (ICI) as part of the Tween series of nonionic .

Applications

Food industry

Polysorbates function as non-ionic emulsifiers in the food industry, stabilizing oil-in-water emulsions by reducing interfacial tension between immiscible phases, thereby preventing separation and enhancing product uniformity. They are affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for specified uses when meeting purity criteria. In and frozen desserts, (E433) is commonly employed to promote partial fat destabilization, which facilitates the formation of a smoother texture by reducing growth and improving during freezing. The FDA limits its use to 0.1% of the finished product, often in combination with polysorbate 65. In the , polysorbates are permitted up to 6000 mg/kg in dairy-based desserts under E numbers 432–436. Polysorbates are integral to emulsified products like salad dressings and , where they maintain stable oil-water mixtures, ensuring consistent and preventing over time. For instance, (E432) aids in dispersing oils effectively in these formulations. FDA regulations cap usage at 500 ppm in dressings such as those for pickles, while EU limits reach 5000 mg/kg for emulsified sauces. In baked goods, polysorbate 60 (E435) serves as a and emulsifier, softening , increasing volume, and improving crumb structure in yeast-leavened products like breads and cakes. The FDA allows up to 0.5% by weight of in dough conditioners and 0.46% (dry-weight basis) in cakes, with higher combined limits when used with other emulsifiers. EU approvals extend to 500–10,000 mg/kg across bakery categories, depending on the . Additional applications include , where polysorbates help stabilize distribution to inhibit fat bloom—a surface discoloration caused by cocoa butter migration—and beverages, where stabilizes cloud emulsions in cloudy drinks like sodas, preventing settling of flavor oils. In beverages, FDA permits as a stabilizer without a specified upper limit beyond good manufacturing practices, while EU levels are up to 10 mg/kg for . Overall, polysorbates extend by minimizing breakdown and enhance through improved creaminess and homogeneity, without significantly altering flavor profiles. Typical usage levels remain below 0.5% in most FDA-regulated foods to ensure safety and efficacy.

Pharmaceuticals

Polysorbates, particularly (PS80) and (PS20), serve as essential excipients in pharmaceutical formulations, functioning primarily as solubilizers for poorly water-soluble drugs, stabilizers for proteins and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to inhibit aggregation, and emulsifiers in injectable solutions. As stabilizers, they interact with hydrophobic regions on protein surfaces, reducing interface-induced aggregation during manufacturing, storage, and administration of biologics. Their use in injectables dates back to the mid-20th century, with early applications in the for enhancing and stability in parenteral formulations, and PS80 notably included in the first approved mAb product, Orthoclone OKT3, in 1986. In vaccine formulations, PS80 acts as an and stabilizer, as seen in products like the and certain vaccines, where it helps maintain emulsion integrity and prevent aggregation at low concentrations typically ranging from 0.02% to 0.1%. For oral and intravenous drugs, PS80 solubilizes hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredients; a prominent example is (Taxotere), where it is used at higher ratios—approximately 26 mg PS80 per mg docetaxel—to enable aqueous delivery despite the drug's poor solubility. In ophthalmic preparations, such as certain artificial tear solutions, PS80 functions as a agent and to alleviate dry eye symptoms by improving tear stability and reducing . Polysorbates are generally incorporated at concentrations of 0.01% to 1% in formulations, with lower levels (0.01–0.05%) common in biopharmaceuticals to minimize potential interactions while providing sufficient protection against aggregation and solubilization. However, a key challenge in biologics arises from their degradation by host cell proteins, such as enzymes during upstream production, which can lead to hydrolysis or oxidation; oxidative pathways, in particular, generate peroxides that may further oxidize sensitive protein residues, potentially compromising product stability and efficacy. This degradation is exacerbated in aqueous environments exposed to light or air, underscoring the need for careful monitoring and mitigation strategies in formulation development.

Cosmetics and personal care

Polysorbates serve as nonionic in cosmetics, primarily functioning as emulsifiers in oil-in-water formulations, solubilizers for essential oils and fragrances, and dispersants for pigments to ensure uniform distribution and stability. These properties allow them to blend incompatible ingredients effectively, preventing separation and enhancing product consistency across various beauty and hygiene formulations. In common products, is frequently incorporated into shampoos and conditioners to improve foam stability and spreadability, while is used in lotions and creams for even blending of active ingredients, as well as in makeup removers and fragrances to solubilize oils without compromising texture. For instance, in eye makeup removers, polysorbates aid in dispersing pigments and oils for gentle, effective cleansing. Typical concentrations range from 0.5% to 5% in most formulations, though higher levels are reported, such as up to 9.1% for in leave-on products and 11.9% for in perfumes; the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) has deemed them safe up to 10.25% for when formulated to be nonirritating. Benefits include improved spreadability for easier application, prevention of to maintain product integrity over time, and enhanced mildness that supports gentle use on and . Vegan and plant-based variants of polysorbates are derived from vegetable oils, such as or sources, ensuring compatibility with ethical formulations while retaining their emulsifying efficacy.

Safety and regulation

Health effects

Polysorbates exhibit low , with oral LD50 values exceeding 25 g/kg body weight in rats, indicating minimal risk from single high exposures. Long-term animal studies, including those by the National Program, have shown no clear evidence of carcinogenicity across multiple species and doses up to 50,000 ppm in feed, though equivocal findings for pheochromocytomas were noted in male rats at the highest dose. Hypersensitivity reactions to polysorbates are rare but documented, particularly with intravenous administration of polysorbate 80 in oncology formulations such as paclitaxel (Taxol), where it has been implicated in anaphylaxis due to excipient-related immune responses. These reactions typically occur in up to 30% of cases without premedication and involve IgE-mediated or non-IgE mechanisms, but incidence decreases with prophylactic measures. Animal studies from 2015 demonstrate that dietary at 1% levels alters composition, promoting low-grade inflammation, encroachment beyond the layer, and features such as in wild-type mice. These effects were microbiota-dependent, as confirmed by germ-free models and fecal transplants, and exacerbated in genetically susceptible strains. Peroxides formed in during storage or processing can induce oxidation of proteins in biologic formulations, leading to stability issues and potential aggregation, with higher levels accelerating methionine, , and residue damage in proteins like IL-2 mutein. Potential endocrine disruption has been suggested and through enhanced absorption of known endocrine-disrupting chemicals, but direct evidence in humans remains unproven, with no observed alterations in or hormone-related effects in clinical studies. Impurities such as , a byproduct of , pose theoretical risks but are minimized to trace levels through steam-stripping and purification in modern production processes. In humans, polysorbates are considered safe at approved exposure levels, with an of 0–25 mg/kg body weight established by regulatory bodies, though emerging animal data from indicate that high dietary intake accelerates cognitive decline in aged mice via gut , bile acid dysregulation, and .

Regulatory approvals

Polysorbates have been recognized as (GRAS) by the U.S. (FDA) for use as direct food additives since the 1960s, with specific regulations outlined in 21 CFR 172.840 for , allowing levels up to 0.1% in products like and up to 0.4% in baked goods. In pharmaceuticals, polysorbates are listed in the FDA's Inactive Ingredient Database, with typical maximum doses around 25 mg per administration for parenteral formulations, and they are subject to (USP) and National Formulary (NF) monographs that specify purity standards, including limits on peroxides and residues. In the , polysorbates are approved as food additives under Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 with E numbers E432 (), E433 (), E434 (polysorbate 40), E435 (polysorbate 60), and E436 (polysorbate 65), permitted at levels in categories such as fine bakery wares and desserts. The (EMA) provides guidelines for polysorbates as pharmaceutical excipients, recommending warnings in package leaflets for intravenous products if patients have a history of reactions, and emphasizing stability testing in biologics to prevent degradation. Internationally, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a group (ADI) of 0–25 mg/kg body weight for polysorbates in 1973, applicable to E432–E436 based on toxicological data from chronic studies in animals. For cosmetics, the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel concluded in 2015 that polysorbates are safe for use when formulated to be non-irritating, with reported concentrations up to about 12% in leave-on products. Post-2020, regulatory scrutiny has increased on polysorbate stability in biologics due to observed degradation in formulations, prompting EMA guidance on oxidation risks and enhanced analytical requirements. In 2025, the FDA initiated a post-market review of emulsifiers including polysorbates, focusing on potential effects from chronic low-level exposure in , as part of a broader framework for re-evaluating food chemicals. Labeling requirements mandate declaration of polysorbates by name or in EU products under Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011, while in the U.S., they must appear in ingredient lists without specific warnings unless cross-contamination risks exist. For pharmaceuticals, both FDA and EMA require inclusion in lists on labels, with EMA specifying patient information on potential for formulations exceeding 10 mg per dose.

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