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A solution of E101 riboflavin (also known as vitamin B2)
Crystals of E621 monosodium glutamate (MSG), a flavour enhancer

E numbers, short for Europe numbers, are codes for substances used as food additives, including those found naturally in many foods, such as vitamin C, for use within the European Union (EU)[1]: 27  and European Free Trade Association (EFTA).[2] Commonly found on food labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).[3] The fact that an additive has an E number implies that its use was at one time permitted in products for sale in the European Single Market; some of these additives are no longer allowed today.

Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring. In 1964, the directives for preservatives were added, in 1970 antioxidants were added, in 1974 emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents were added as well.[4]

Numbering schemes

[edit]

The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee,[5] though only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union as food additives. Outside the European continent plus Russia, E numbers are also encountered on food labelling in other jurisdictions, including the Gulf Cooperation Council, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand,[6] Malaysia, Hong Kong,[7] and India.

Colloquial use

[edit]

In some European countries, the "E number" is used informally as a derogatory term for artificial food additives. For example, in the UK, food companies are required to include the "E number(s)" in the ingredients that are added as part of the manufacturing process. Many components of naturally occurring healthy foods and vitamins have assigned E numbers (and the number is a synonym for the chemical component), e.g. vitamin C (E300) and lycopene (E160d), found in carrots. At the same time, "E number" is sometimes misunderstood to imply approval for safe consumption. This is not necessarily the case, e.g. Avoparcin (E715) is an antibiotic once used in animal feed, but is no longer permitted in the EU, and has never been permitted for human consumption.[8] Sodium nitrite (E250) is toxic. Sulfuric acid (E513) is caustic.[citation needed]

Classification by numeric range

[edit]
E number range Subranges Description
100–199 (full list)
Colours 		100–107 yellows
110–111 oranges
120–129 reds
130–139 blues and violets
140–149 greens
150–159 browns and blacks
160–199 gold and others
200–299 (full list)
Preservatives 		200–209 sorbates
210–219 benzoates
220–229 sulfites
230–239 phenols and formates (methanoates)
240–259 nitrates
260–269 acetates (ethanoates)
270–279 lactates
280–289 propionates (propanoates)
290–299 others
300–399 (full list)
Antioxidants and acidity regulators 		300–305 ascorbates (vitamin C)
306–309 Tocopherol (vitamin E)
310–319 gallates and erythorbates
320–329 lactates
330–337 citrates and tartrates
338–343 phosphates
344–345 citrates
349–359 malates and adipates
360–369 succinates and fumarates
370–399 others
400–499 (full list)
Thickeners, stabilisers and emulsifiers 		400–409 alginates
410–419 natural gums
420–429 other natural agents
430–439 polyoxyethene compounds
440–449 natural emulsifiers
450–459 phosphates
460–469 cellulose compounds
470–489 fatty acids and compounds
490–499 others
500–599 (full list)
pH regulators and anti-caking agents 		500–509 mineral acids and bases
510–519 chlorides and sulfates
520–529 sulfates and hydroxides
530–549 alkali metal compounds
550–559 silicates
570–579 stearates and gluconates
580–599 others
600–699 (full list)
Flavour enhancers 		620–629 glutamates and guanylates
630–639 inosinates
640–649 others
700–799 (full list)
Antibiotics 		700–713
900–999 (full list)
Glazing agents, gases and sweeteners 		900–909 waxes
910–919 synthetic glazes
920–929 improving agents
930–949 packaging gases
950–969 sweeteners
990–999 foaming agents
1000–1599 (full list)
Additional additives 		1100–1599 New chemicals that do not fall into standard classification schemes

Not all examples of a class fall into the given numeric range; moreover, certain chemicals (particularly in the E400–499 range) have a variety of purposes.

Full list

[edit]

The list shows all components that have an E-number assigned, even those no longer allowed in the EU.

E100–E199 (colours)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Colour Status
E100 Curcumin (from turmeric) Yellow-orange Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E101 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2), formerly called lactoflavin Yellow-orange Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E101a Riboflavin-5'-Phosphate Yellow-orange Approved in the EU.[9]
E102 Tartrazine (FD&C Yellow 5) Yellow Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E103 Alkannin[11] Red-brown
E104 Quinoline Yellow WS Dull or greenish yellow Restricted use approved in the EU.[9][12]
E105 Fast Yellow AB Yellow Forbidden in the EU and US.[13]
E106 Riboflavin-5-Sodium Phosphate Yellow
E107 Yellow 2G Yellow
E110 Sunset Yellow FCF (Orange Yellow S, FD&C Yellow 6) Yellow-orange Restricted use approved in the EU.[9][12]
Banned in Norway.[14]
Products in the EU require warnings and its use is being phased out.[12] Approved in the US.[10]
E111 Orange GGN Orange
E120 Cochineal, Carminic acid, Carmine (Natural Red 4) Crimson Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E121 Citrus Red 2 Orange to pink Approved in the United States only for use in colouring the skin of oranges.[15]
E122 Carmoisine (azorubine) Red to maroon Approved in the EU.[9]
Undergoing a voluntary phase-out in the UK.
Currently banned in Canada, Japan, Norway, USA [citation needed]
EU currently evaluating health risks.[citation needed]
E123 Amaranth (FD&C Red 2) Red Approved in the EU.[9] Banned in the United States.[16]
E124 Ponceau 4R (Cochineal Red A, Brilliant Scarlet 4R) Pink Restricted use approved in the EU.[9][12]
E125 Ponceau SX, Scarlet GN Red Only permitted for externally applied drugs and cosmetics in the US.[17][18][19]
E126 Ponceau 6R Red
E127 Erythrosine (FD&C Red 3) Pink Approved in the EU.[9] Banned in the US.[20]
E128 Red 2G Red or pink Not approved in the EU.[12]
E129 Allura Red AC (FD&C Red 40) Red Approved in the EU,[9] but banned by individual EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, and Sweden. Also banned by non-EU countries Norway and Switzerland.[21]
Undergoing a voluntary phase out in the UK.
Approved in the US.[10]
E130 Indanthrene blue RS Blue
E131 Patent Blue V Sky blue Approved in the EU.[9]

Banned in the US and Australia.[citation needed]

E132 Indigo carmine (indigotine, FD&C Blue 2) Indigo Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E133 Brilliant blue FCF (FD&C Blue 1) Blue Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E140 Chlorophylls and Chlorophyllins:
(i) Chlorophylls
(ii) Chlorophyllins 		Green Approved in the EU.[9]
E141 Copper complexes of chlorophylls and chlorophyllins
(i) Copper complexes of chlorophylls
ii) Copper complexes of chlorophyllins 		Green Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E142 Green S Green Approved in the EU.[9]
E143 Fast Green FCF (FD&C Green 3) Turquoise Approved in the US. Banned in the EU.
E150a Plain caramel Brown Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E150b Caustic sulfite caramel Brown Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E150c Ammonia caramel Brown Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E150d Sulfite ammonia caramel Brown Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E151 Black PN, Brilliant Black BN Black Approved in the EU.[9]
E152 Carbon black (hydrocarbon) Black
E153 Vegetable carbon Black Approved in the EU.[9] Banned in the US.[22]
E154 Brown FK (kipper brown) Brown Previously approved in the EU for dyeing kippers only: approval withdrawn November 2011.[12]
E155 Brown HT (chocolate brown HT) Brown Approved in the EU.[9]
E160a Alpha-carotene, Beta-carotene, Gamma-carotene Yellow-orange to brown Approved in the EU.[9] Only beta-carotene is approved in the US [10]
E160b Annatto, bixin, norbixin Orange Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E160c Paprika oleoresin: (i) capsanthin, (ii) capsorubin Red Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E160d Lycopene Bright to deep red Restricted use approved in the EU.[9][12] Approved in the US.[10]
E160e Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) Orange-red to yellow Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E160f Ethyl ester of beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid (C 30) Orange-red to yellow Not approved in the EU.[12]
E161a Flavoxanthin Golden-yellow and brownish
E161b Lutein Orange-red to yellow Approved in the EU.[9]
E161c Cryptoxanthin Orange-red
E161d Rubixanthin Orange-red
E161e Violaxanthin Orange
E161f Rhodoxanthin Purple
E161g Canthaxanthin Violet Not approved in the EU.[12] Approved in the US.[10]
E161h Zeaxanthin Orange-red
E161i Citranaxanthin Deep violet
E161j Astaxanthin Red
E162 Beetroot Red, Betanin Red Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US.[10]
E163 Anthocyanins pH dependent
(Red, green and purple ranges) 		Approved in the EU.[9]
E164 Saffron Orange-red[colour?] Approved in the US.[10]
E170 Calcium carbonate, Chalk White Approved in the EU.[9]
E171 Titanium dioxide White No longer approved in the EU as of June 2022,[23] due to the identification of potential carcinogenic effects.[24]
Approved in the US.[10]
E172 Iron oxides and iron hydroxides Brown Approved in the EU.[9] Approved in the US for sausage casings.[10]
E173 Aluminium Silver to grey Approved in the EU.[9]
E174 Silver Silver Approved in the EU.[9]
E175 Gold Gold Approved in the EU.[9]
E180 Pigment Rubine, Lithol Rubine BK Red Approved in the EU.[9]
E181 Tannin Brown
E182 Orcein, Orchil Purple

E200–E299 (preservatives)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E200 Sorbic acid preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E201 Sodium sorbate preservative
E202 Potassium sorbate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E203 Calcium sorbate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E209 Heptyl p-hydroxybenzoate preservative
E210 Benzoic acid preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E211 Sodium benzoate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E212 Potassium benzoate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E213 Calcium benzoate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E214 Ethylparaben (ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E215 Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E216 Propylparaben (propyl para-hydroxybenzoate) preservative
E217 Sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative
E218 Methylparaben (methyl para-hydroxybenzoate) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E219 Sodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E220 Sulfur dioxide preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E221 Sodium sulfite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E222 Sodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E223 Sodium metabisulfite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E224 Potassium metabisulfite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E225 Potassium sulfite preservative
E226 Calcium sulfite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E227 Calcium hydrogen sulfite (preservative) firming agent Approved in the EU.[9]
E228 Potassium hydrogen sulfite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E230 Biphenyl, diphenyl preservative Not approved in the EU.
E231 Orthophenyl phenol preservative Not approved in the EU.
E232 Sodium orthophenyl phenol preservative Not approved in the EU.
E233 Thiabendazole preservative Not approved in the EU.
E234 Nisin preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E235 Natamycin, Pimaracin preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E236 Formic acid preservative
E237 Sodium formate preservative
E238 Calcium formate preservative
E239 Hexamine (hexamethylene tetramine) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E240 Formaldehyde preservative
E242 Dimethyl dicarbonate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E249 Potassium nitrite preservative Approved in the EU.[9] In April 2023 the French Court of Appeals of Limoges confirmed that food-watch NGO Yuka was legally legitimate in describing Potassium Nitrite "and other nitrates" E249 to E252 as a "cancer risk", and thus rejected an appeal by the French charcuterie industry against the organisation.[25]
E250 Sodium nitrite preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E251 Sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E252 Potassium nitrate (Saltpetre) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E260 Acetic acid (preservative) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E261 Potassium acetate (preservative) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E262 Sodium acetates
(i) Sodium acetate
(ii) Sodium diacetate (sodium hydrogen acetate) 		preservative,
acidity regulator 		Approved in the EU.[26]
E263 Calcium acetate (preservative) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E264 Ammonium acetate preservative Approved in Australia and New Zealand[27]
E265 Dehydroacetic acid preservative
E266 Sodium dehydroacetate preservative
E267 Buffered vinegar preservative Approved in the EU.[28]
E270 Lactic acid (preservative) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[26]
E280 Propionic acid preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E281 Sodium propionate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E282 Calcium propionate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E283 Potassium propionate preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E284 Boric acid preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E285 Sodium tetraborate (borax) preservative Approved in the EU.[9]
E290 Carbon dioxide acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E296 Malic acid (acid) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E297 Fumaric acid acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]

E300–E399 (antioxidants, acidity regulators)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E300 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E301 Sodium ascorbate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E302 Calcium ascorbate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E303 Potassium ascorbate antioxidant
E304 Fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid (Ascorbyl palmitate) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E305 Ascorbyl stearate antioxidant
E306 Tocopherols (Vitamin E, natural) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E307 Alpha-Tocopherol (synthetic) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E308 Gamma-Tocopherol (synthetic) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E309 Delta-Tocopherol (synthetic) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E310 Propyl gallate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E311 Octyl gallate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E312 Dodecyl gallate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E313 Ethyl gallate antioxidant
E314 Guaiac resin antioxidant
E315 Erythorbic acid antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E316 Sodium erythorbate antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E317 Erythorbin acid[citation needed] antioxidant
E318 Sodium erythorbin[citation needed] antioxidant
E319 tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E320 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E321 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E322 Lecithin emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E323 Anoxomer antioxidant
E324 Ethoxyquin antioxidant
E325 Sodium lactate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E326 Potassium lactate (antioxidant) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E327 Calcium lactate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E328 Ammonium lactate acidity regulator
E329 Magnesium lactate acidity regulator
E330 Citric acid acid, acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E331 Sodium citrates
(i) Monosodium citrate
(ii) Disodium citrate
(iii) Sodium citrate (trisodium citrate) 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E332 Potassium citrates
(i) Monopotassium citrate
(ii) Potassium citrate (tripotassium citrate) 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E333 Calcium citrates
(i) Monocalcium citrate
(ii) Dicalcium citrate
(iii) Calcium citrate (tricalcium citrate) 		acidity regulator,
firming agent,
sequestrant 		Approved in the EU.[26]
E334 Tartaric acid (L(+)-) (acid) Approved in the EU.[26]
E335 Sodium tartrates
(i) Monosodium tartrate
(ii) Disodium tartrate 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E336 Potassium tartrates
(i) Monopotassium tartrate (cream of tartar)
(ii) Dipotassium tartrate 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E337 Sodium potassium tartrate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E338 Phosphoric acid acid Approved in the EU.[26]
E339 Sodium phosphates
(i) Monosodium phosphate
(ii) Disodium phosphate
(iii) Trisodium phosphate 		antioxidant Approved in the EU.[26]
E340 Potassium phosphates
(i) Monopotassium phosphate
(ii) Dipotassium phosphate
(iii) Tripotassium phosphate 		antioxidant Approved in the EU.[26]
E341 Calcium phosphates
(i) Monocalcium phosphate
(ii) Dicalcium phosphate
(iii) Tricalcium phosphate 		anti-caking agent,
firming agent 		Approved in the EU.[26]
E342 Ammonium phosphates:
(i) monoammonium phosphate
(ii) diammonium phosphate
E343 Magnesium phosphates
(i) monomagnesium phosphate
(ii) Dimagnesium phosphate 		anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26] This additive is under discussion and may be included in a future amendment to the Directive on miscellaneous additives.
E344 Lecithin citrate acidity regulator Not approved in the UK[31]
E345 Magnesium citrate acidity regulator
E349 Ammonium malate acidity regulator
E350 Sodium malates
(i) Sodium malate
(ii) Sodium hydrogen malate 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E351 Potassium malate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E352 Calcium malates
(i) Calcium malate
(ii) Calcium hydrogen malate 		acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E353 Metatartaric acid emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E354 Calcium tartrate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E355 Adipic acid acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E356 Sodium adipate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E357 Potassium adipate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E359 Ammonium adipate acidity regulator
E363 Succinic acid acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E365 Monosodium fumarate acidity regulator
E366 Potassium fumarate acidity regulator
E367 Calcium fumarate acidity regulator
E368 Ammonium fumarate acidity regulator
E370 1,4-Heptonolactone acidity regulator
E375 Niacin acidity regulator
E380 Triammonium citrate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E381 Ammonium ferric citrate acidity regulator
E383 Calcium glycerylphosphate acidity regulator
E384 Isopropyl citrate acidity regulator
E385 Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetraacetate, (Calcium disodium EDTA) sequestrant Approved in the EU.[26]
E386 Disodium ethylene diamine tetraacetate (Disodium EDTA) sequestrant
E387 Oxystearin stabiliser
E388 Thiodipropionic acid
E389 Dilauryl thiodipropionate
E390 Distearyl thiodipropionate
E391 Phytic acid
E392 Carnosic acid Approved in 2010[32]
E399 Calcium lactobionate

E400–E499 (thickeners, stabilisers, emulsifiers)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E400 Alginic acid (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E401 Sodium alginate (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E402 Potassium alginate (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E403 Ammonium alginate (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E404 Calcium alginate (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E405 Propane-1,2-diol alginate (Propylene glycol alginate) (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E406 Agar (thickener) (gelling agent) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[30]
E407 Carrageenan (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E407a Processed eucheuma seaweed (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E408 Bakers yeast glycan
E409 Arabinogalactan
E410 Locust bean gum (Carob gum) (thickener) (stabiliser) (gelling agent) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E411 Oat gum (thickener) stabiliser
E412 Guar gum (thickener) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[30]
E413 Tragacanth (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E414 Acacia gum (gum arabic) (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E415 Xanthan gum (thickener) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[30]
E416 Karaya gum (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E417 Tara gum (thickener) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[30]
E418 Gellan gum (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E419 Gum ghatti (thickener) (stabiliser) emulsifier
E420 Sorbitol (i) Sorbitol (ii) Sorbitol syrup (emulsifier) (sweetener) humectant Approved in the EU.[33]
E421 Mannitol (anti-caking agent) sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E422 Glycerol (emulsifier) sweetener Approved in the EU.[26]
E424 Curdlan gelling agent
E425 Konjac (i) Konjac gum (ii) Konjac glucomannane emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30] May not be used in confectionery owing to choking risk.[citation needed]
E426 Soybean hemicellulose Approved in the EU.[30]
E427 Cassia gum Approved in 2010[32]
E428 Gelatin
E429 Peptones
E430 Polyoxyethene (8) stearate (emulsifier) stabiliser
E431 Polyoxyethene (40) stearate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E432 Polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan monolaurate (polysorbate 20) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E433 Polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan monooleate (polysorbate 80) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E434 Polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate (polysorbate 40) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E435 Polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan monostearate (polysorbate 60) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E436 Polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan tristearate (polysorbate 65) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E440 Pectins (i) pectin (ii) amidated pectin emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E441 Gelatine (emulsifier) gelling agent
E442 Ammonium phosphatides emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E443 Brominated vegetable oil emulsifier
E444 Sucrose acetate isobutyrate emulsifier
E445 Glycerol esters of wood rosins emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E446 Succistearin
E450 Diphosphates:
(i) Disodium diphosphate
(ii) Trisodium diphosphate
(iii) Tetrasodium diphosphate
(iv) Dipotassium diphosphate
(v) Tetrapotassium diphosphate
(vi) Dicalcium diphosphate
(vii) Calcium dihydrogen diphosphate 		emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E451 Triphosphates:
(i) Sodium triphosphate (pentasodium triphosphate)
(ii) Pentapotassium triphosphate 		emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E452 Polyphosphates:
(i) Sodium polyphosphates
(ii) Potassium polyphosphates
(iii) Sodium calcium polyphosphate
(iv) Calcium polyphosphates
(v) Ammonium polyphosphate 		emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E459 Beta-cyclodextrin emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E460 Cellulose (i) Microcrystalline cellulose (ii) Powdered cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E461 Methyl cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E462 Ethyl cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E463 Hydroxypropyl cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E464 Hypromellose (hydroxypropyl methylcellulose) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E465 Ethyl methyl cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E466 Carboxymethyl cellulose, Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E467 Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
E468 Crosslinked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Croscarmellose) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30] This additive is under discussion and may be included in a future amendment to the Directive on miscellaneous additives
E469 Enzymically hydrolysed carboxymethylcellulose emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E470a Sodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids (emulsifier) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[30]
E470b Magnesium salts of fatty acids (emulsifier) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[30]
E471 Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl distearate) emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472a Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472b Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472c Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472d Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472e Mono- and diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472f Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E472g Succinylated monoglycerides emulsifier
E473 Sucrose esters of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E474 Sucroglycerides emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E475 Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E476 Polyglycerol polyricinoleate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E477 Propane-1,2-diol esters of fatty acids, propylene glycol esters of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E478 Lactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propane-1 emulsifier
E479b Thermally oxidized soya bean oil interacted with mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E480 Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate emulsifier
E481 Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E482 Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E483 Stearyl tartrate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E484 Stearyl citrate emulsifier
E485 Sodium stearoyl fumarate emulsifier
E486 Calcium stearoyl fumarate emulsifier
E487 Sodium laurylsulfate emulsifier
E488 Ethoxylated Mono- and Di-Glycerides emulsifier
E489 Methyl glucoside-coconut oil ester emulsifier
E490 Propane-1,2-diol
E491 Sorbitan monostearate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E492 Sorbitan tristearate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E493 Sorbitan monolaurate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E494 Sorbitan monooleate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E495 Sorbitan monopalmitate emulsifier Approved in the EU.[30]
E496 Sorbitan trioleate emulsifier
E497 Polyoxypropylene-polyoxyethylene polymers
E498 Partial polyglycerol esters of polycondensed fatty acids of castor oil
E499 Stigmasterol-rich plant sterols Approved in the EU.[30]

E500–E599 (acidity regulators, anti-caking agents)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E500 Sodium carbonates: (i) Sodium carbonate (ii) Sodium bicarbonate (Sodium hydrogen carbonate) (iii) Sodium sesquicarbonate (acidity regulator) raising agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E501 Potassium carbonates: (i) Potassium carbonate (ii) Potassium bicarbonate (Potassium hydrogen carbonate) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E503 Ammonium carbonates: (i) Ammonium carbonate (ii) Ammonium bicarbonate (Ammonium hydrogen carbonate) acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E504 Magnesium carbonates: (i) Magnesium carbonate (ii) Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium hydrogen carbonate acidity regulator, anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E505 Ferrous carbonate acidity regulator
E507 Hydrochloric acid acid Approved in the EU.[26]
E508 Potassium chloride (gelling agent) seasoning Approved in the EU.[26]
E509 Calcium chloride (sequestrant) firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E510 Ammonium chloride, ammonia solution (acidity regulator) improving agent
E511 Magnesium chloride firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E512 Stannous chloride antioxidant Approved in the EU.[26]
E513 Sulfuric acid acid Approved in the EU.[26]
E514 Sodium sulfates (i) Sodium sulfate (ii) sodium bisulfate acid Approved in the EU.[26]
E515 Potassium sulfates (i) potassium sulfate (ii) potassium bisulfate Approved in the EU.[26]
E516 Calcium sulfate Approved in the EU.[26]
E517 Ammonium sulfate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E518 Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts), (acidity regulator) firming agent
E519 Copper(II) sulfate preservative
E520 Aluminium sulfate firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E521 Aluminium sodium sulfate firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E522 Aluminium potassium sulfate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E523 Aluminium ammonium sulfate acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E524 Sodium hydroxide acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E525 Potassium hydroxide acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E526 Calcium hydroxide (acidity regulator) firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E527 Ammonium hydroxide acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E528 Magnesium hydroxide acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E529 Calcium oxide (acidity regulator) improving agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E530 Magnesium oxide (acidity regulator) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E535 Sodium ferrocyanide (acidity regulator) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E536 Potassium ferrocyanide anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E537 Ferrous hexacyanomanganate anti-caking agent
E538 Calcium ferrocyanide anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E539 Sodium thiosulfate antioxidant
E540 Dicalcium diphosphate[citation needed] (acidity regulator) emulsifier
E541 Sodium aluminium phosphate (i) Acidic (ii) Basic emulsifier Approved in the EU.[26]
E542 Bone phosphate (Essentiale Calcium Phosphate, Tribasic) anti-caking agent
E543 Calcium sodium polyphosphate emulsifier
E544 Calcium polyphosphate emulsifier
E545 Ammonium polyphosphate emulsifier
E550 Sodium Silicates (i) Sodium silicate (ii) Sodium metasilicate anti-caking agent
E551 Silicon dioxide (Silica) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E552 Calcium silicate anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E553a (i) Magnesium silicate (ii) Magnesium trisilicate anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E553b Talc anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E554 Sodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate) anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E555 Potassium aluminium silicate (potassium aluminosilicate) anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E556 Calcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate) anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E557 Zinc silicate anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E558 Bentonite anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E559 Aluminium silicate (Kaolin) anti-caking agent removed from list per Commission Regulation (EU) No 380/2012 of 3 May 2012
E560 Potassium silicate anti-caking agent
E561 Vermiculite
E562 Sepiolite
E563 Sepiolitic clay
E565 Lignosulfonates
E566 Natrolite-phonolite
E570 Fatty acids anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E572 Magnesium stearate, calcium stearate (emulsifier) anti-caking agent
E574 Gluconic acid acidity regulator Approved in the EU.[26]
E575 Glucono delta-lactone (acidity regulator) sequestrant Approved in the EU.[26]
E576 Sodium gluconate sequestrant Approved in the EU.[26]
E577 Potassium gluconate sequestrant Approved in the EU.[26]
E578 Calcium gluconate firming agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E579 Ferrous gluconate food colouring Approved in the EU.[26]
E580 Magnesium gluconate
E585 Ferrous lactate food colouring Approved in the EU.[26]
E586 4-Hexylresorcinol antioxidant Approved in the EU.[29]
E598 Synthetic calcium aluminates
E599 Perlite

E600–E699 (flavour enhancers)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E620 Glutamic acid flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E621 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E622 Monopotassium glutamate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E623 Calcium diglutamate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E624 Monoammonium glutamate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E625 Magnesium diglutamate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E626 Guanylic acid flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E627 Disodium guanylate, sodium guanylate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E628 Dipotassium guanylate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E629 Calcium guanylate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E630 Inosinic acid flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E631 Disodium inosinate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E632 Dipotassium inosinate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E633 Calcium inosinate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E634 Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E635 Disodium 5'-ribonucleotides flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E636 Maltol flavour enhancer
E637 Ethyl maltol flavour enhancer
E640 Glycine and its sodium salt flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]
E650 Zinc acetate flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[26]

E700–E799 (antibiotics)

[edit]

[34]

Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E701 Tetracyclines antibiotic
E702 Chlortetracycline antibiotic
E703 Oxytetracycline antibiotic
E704 Oleandomycin antibiotic
E705 Penicillin G potassium antibiotic
E706 Penicillin G sodium antibiotic
E707 Penicillin G procaine antibiotic
E708 Penicillin G benzathine antibiotic
E710 Spiramycins antibiotic
E711 Virginiamycins antibiotic
E712 Flavomycin antibiotic
E713 Tylosin antibiotic
E714 Monensin A antibiotic
E715 Avoparcin antibiotic
E716 Salinomycin antibiotic
E717 Avilamycin antibiotic

E900–E999 (glazing agents, gases and sweeteners)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E900 Dimethyl polysiloxane (anti-foaming agent) anti-caking agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E901 Beeswax, white and yellow glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E902 Candelilla wax glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E903 Carnauba wax glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E904 Shellac glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E905 Paraffins Approved in the EU.[26]
E905a Mineral oil anti-foaming agent
E905b Petrolatum
E905c Petroleum wax (i)Microcrystalline wax (ii) Paraffin wax glazing agent
E906 Gum benzoic flavour enhancer
E907 Crystalline wax glazing agent
E908 Rice bran wax glazing agent
E909 Spermaceti wax glazing agent
E910 Wax esters glazing agent
E911 Methyl esters of fatty acids glazing agent
E912 Montanic acid esters, Montan acid esters glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E913 Lanolin, sheep wool grease glazing agent
E914 Oxidized polyethylene wax, oxidized polyethylene glazing agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E915 Esters of colophony glazing agent
E916 Calcium iodate
E917 Potassium iodate
E918 Nitrogen oxides
E919 Nitrosyl chloride
E920 L-cysteine improving agent Approved in the EU[35]
E921 L-cystine improving agent
E922 Potassium persulfate improving agent
E923 Ammonium persulfate improving agent
E924 Potassium bromate improving agent Banned in the EU;[36] genotoxic carcinogen[37]
E924b Calcium bromate improving agent
E925 Chlorine preservative, bleach, improving agent
E926 Chlorine dioxide (preservative) bleach
E927a Azodicarbonamide improving agent identified as a Substance of Very High Concern in EU.[38]
E927b Carbamide (urea) improving agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E928 Benzoyl peroxide (improving agent) bleach
E929 Acetone peroxide
E930 Calcium peroxide (improving agent) bleach
E938 Argon packaging gas Approved in the EU.[26]
E939 Helium packaging gas Approved in the EU.[26]
E940 Dichlorodifluoromethane packaging gas Banned in all countries, in compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
E941 Nitrogen (packaging gas) propellant Approved in the EU.[26]
E942 Nitrous oxide propellant Approved in the EU.[26]
E943a Butane propellant Approved in the EU.[26]
E943b Isobutane propellant Approved in the EU.[26]
E944 Propane propellant Approved in the EU.[26]
E945 Chloropentafluoroethane propellant Banned in all countries, in compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
E946 Octafluorocyclobutane propellant Banned in all countries, in compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
E948 Oxygen packaging gas Approved in the EU.[26]
E949 Hydrogen packaging gas Approved in the EU.[26]
E950 Acesulfame potassium sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E951 Aspartame sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E952 Cyclamic acid and its sodium and calcium salts, also known as Cyclamate sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E953 Isomalt, Isomaltitol sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E954 Saccharin and its sodium, potassium and calcium salts sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E955 Sucralose (Trichlorogalactosucrose) sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E956 Alitame sweetener
E957 Thaumatin (sweetener) flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[33]
E958 Glycyrrhizin (sweetener) flavour enhancer
E959 Neohesperidine dihydrochalcone (sweetener) flavour enhancer Approved in the EU.[33]
E960 Steviol glycosides sweetener Approved in the EU.[39]
E961 Neotame sweetener Approved in 2010[32]
E962 Aspartame-acesulfame salt (sweetener) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[33]
E964 Polyglycitol syrup sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E965 Maltitol (i) Maltitol (ii) Maltitol syrup (sweetener) (stabiliser) humectant Approved in the EU.[33]
E966 Lactitol sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E967 Xylitol sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E968 Erythritol sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E969 Advantame sweetener Approved in the EU.[33]
E999 Quillaia extract foaming agent Approved in the EU.[26]

E1000–E1599 (additional additives)

[edit]
Code Name(s) Purpose Status
E1000 Cholic acid emulsifier
E1001 Choline salts emulsifier
E1100 Amylase stabiliser, flavour enhancer
E1101 Proteases ((i)Protease, (ii)Papain, (iii)Bromelain, (iv)Ficin) stabiliser, flavour enhancer
E1102 Glucose oxidase antioxidant
E1103 Invertase stabiliser Approved in the EU.[30]
E1104 Lipases
E1105 Lysozyme preservative
E1200 Polydextrose stabiliser, thickening agent, humectant, carrier Approved in the EU.[26]
E1201 Polyvinylpyrrolidone stabiliser Approved in the EU.[26]
E1202 Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (carrier) stabiliser Approved in the EU.[26]
E1203 Polyvinyl alcohol Approved in 2010[32]
E1204 Pullulan Approved in the EU.[26]
E1400 Dextrin (Dextrins, roasted starch white and yellow) (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1401 Modified starch ((Acid-treated starch) stabiliser) thickening agent
E1402 Alkaline modified starch (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1403 Bleached starch (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1404 Oxidized starch (emulsifier) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1405 Enzyme treated starch
E1410 Monostarch phosphate (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1411 Distarch glycerol (thickening agent) emulsifier
E1412 Distarch phosphate esterified with sodium trimetasphosphate; esterified with phosphorus oxychloride (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1413 Phosphated distarch phosphate (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1414 Acetylated distarch phosphate (emulsifier) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1420 Starch acetate esterified with acetic anhydride (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1421 Starch acetate esterified with vinyl acetate (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1422 Acetylated distarch adipate (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1423 Acetylated distarch glycerol thickening agent
E1430 Distarch glycerine (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1440 Hydroxy propyl starch (emulsifier) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1441 Hydroxy propyl distarch glycerine (stabiliser) thickening agent
E1442 Hydroxy propyl distarch phosphate (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1443 Hydroxy propyl distarch glycerol
E1450 Starch sodium octenyl succinate (emulsifier) (stabiliser) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1451 Acetylated oxidised starch (emulsifier) thickening agent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1452 Starch aluminium octenyl succinate Approved in the EU.[26]
E1501 Benzylated hydrocarbons
E1502 Butane-1, 3-diol
E1503 Castor oil resolving agent
E1504 Ethyl acetate flavour solvent
E1505 Triethyl citrate foam stabiliser Approved in the EU.[26]
E1510 Ethanol
E1516 Glyceryl monoacetate flavour solvent
E1517 Glyceryl diacetate or diacetin flavour solvent
E1518 Glyceryl triacetate or triacetin humectant and flavour solvent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1519 Benzyl alcohol
E1520 Propylene glycol humectant and flavour solvent Approved in the EU.[26]
E1521 Polyethylene glycol 8000[40] Approved in 2010[32]
E1525 Hydroxyethyl cellulose thickening agent

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

E number

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from Grokipedia
E numbers are standardized codes consisting of the letter "E" followed by a numerical identifier, assigned to substances approved as food additives within the European Union after rigorous safety evaluations by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). These additives encompass a range of functions, including colors (E100–E199), preservatives (E200–E299), antioxidants, emulsifiers, and sweeteners, enabling manufacturers to enhance food safety, shelf life, texture, and appearance while adhering to strict regulatory limits. Governed primarily by Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008, E numbers facilitate clear labeling, requiring both the code and the additive's name on packaging to inform consumers. The system originated in the early 1960s as part of efforts to harmonize standards across , with the International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) influencing its development for global consistency, though E numbers remain specific to EU authorization. Approval demands demonstration of safety for intended uses, technological necessity, and no misleading of consumers, with EFSA conducting risk assessments based on toxicological data, exposure estimates, and epidemiological evidence before endorsement. Re-evaluations occur periodically, leading to bans or restrictions, as seen with certain colors like (E102) linked to hyperactivity in sensitive children via empirical studies. Despite empirical validation of safety at permitted levels, E numbers have sparked controversies, fueled by media portrayals and distrust amplified through social channels, often conflating approved synthetic additives with unproven risks like cardiovascular issues from high emulsifier intake observed in observational cohorts. Causal links remain debated, as regulatory bodies prioritize randomized controlled data over correlative findings, yet public skepticism persists, prompting demands for greater transparency in additive sourcing and long-term effects. Historical precedents of withdrawn additives, such as some preservatives banned post-market , underscore ongoing vigilance, though systemic biases in academic reporting may overemphasize risks from industry-funded trials while underreporting natural additive toxicities.

History

Origins and Early Development

Following , Europe's expanded rapidly with the adoption of synthetic additives, such as artificial colors and preservatives, to extend , improve sensory appeal, and meet rising demand in processed foods amid economic reconstruction. This proliferation, while enabling efficient production, heightened risks of adulteration and health concerns due to inconsistent national regulations; for instance, substances permitted in one country faced bans elsewhere, creating non-tariff trade barriers that hindered the nascent European common market. The (EEC), formed in , recognized the need for harmonized controls grounded in verifiable safety assessments to facilitate intra-community trade while addressing empirical evidence of additive variability's economic impacts. The E numbering system originated in 1962 with the EEC's first directive on food colorings, Council Directive 62/2645/EEC, which approved a unified list of 36 colorants—20 natural and 16 synthetic—assigning them sequential codes beginning with E100 (e.g., as E100). This framework prioritized additives subjected to toxicological evaluations emphasizing dose-response data and no-effect levels over unsubstantiated anecdotal risks, establishing a precedent for causal risk-based approvals rather than blanket prohibitions. By standardizing labeling and permitting criteria, the directive curbed fraudulent substitution of untested dyes and laid the groundwork for broader additive oversight, directly responding to documented inconsistencies in member states' pre-existing national lists. Expansion followed swiftly in 1964 with directives incorporating preservatives into the E system, such as E200 series for sorbates and benzoates, building on the colorings model to encompass substances critical for microbial control in preserved s. These early lists were compiled through intergovernmental consultations, drawing on emerging protocols from bodies like national food standards committees, which tested additives via to derive acceptable daily intakes based on observed thresholds for adverse effects. This phase marked a shift from fragmented, tradition-bound approvals to a systematic, evidence-driven approach, though initial evaluations were limited by then-available methodologies, focusing primarily on rather than long-term chronic exposures.

Harmonization and Expansion in the EU

In the 1970s, the (EEC) extended its harmonized regulations with Council Directive 70/357/EEC of 13 July 1970, which approved specific antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (E 300) and established uniform conditions for their use across member states, approximating divergent national laws to prioritize scientifically evaluated substances. This directive assigned E numbers in the 300 series, building on prior categories for colors and preservatives to create a cohesive identification system. Subsequently, Council Directive 74/329/EEC of 18 June 1974 incorporated emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, and gelling agents, authorizing substances like (E 400) and (E 440) under the 400 series, thereby expanding the scope of permitted additives while mandating purity criteria derived from toxicological data. These approximation directives implemented a positive list mechanism, restricting use to EEC-approved E-numbered additives and prohibiting member states from permitting additional substances without Community authorization, which overridden less rigorous or inconsistent national regimes to enforce a baseline of empirical safety validation throughout the common market. This harmonization facilitated causal enhancements in integrity by standardizing permissible inputs, reducing variability in additive quality and exposure risks that had persisted under fragmented rules. By the mid-1980s, labeling transparency advanced under Council Directive 79/112/EEC of 18 December 1978 on foodstuffs labeling, presentation, and advertising, with amendments requiring additives to be declared by functional category (e.g., "") followed by their specific name or E number in ingredient lists, applicable from dates such as 1 January 1985 for certain updates. This enabled direct consumer verification and regulatory oversight, aligning with the growing E number inventory and supporting enforcement of the positive list. Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of 27 1997 on novel foods and novel food ingredients marked a complementary by mandating pre-market and safety dossiers for foods or ingredients without significant pre-1997 EU consumption history, employing assessment protocols akin to those for additives and indirectly fortifying E number rigor through parallel scrutiny of innovative substances potentially eligible for additive classification post-evaluation.

Definition and Purpose

Core Definition of E Numbers

E numbers are standardized numerical codes, prefixed with the letter "E", assigned to substances approved as food additives within the . These codes identify materials that perform specific technological functions in food, such as enhancing color, preserving freshness, or stabilizing texture, and are granted only after the additive has undergone comprehensive safety evaluations confirming it poses no significant risk to health under authorized conditions of use. The system encompasses a wide range of substances, including both those extracted from natural sources and those produced synthetically; for example, E100 refers to , a derived from , while E300 designates ascorbic acid, commonly known as and used as an . Assignment of an E number signifies regulatory acceptance across member states, harmonizing identification and permitting consistent application in food manufacturing without implying inherent danger or artificial origin. In practice, E numbers facilitate clear labeling requirements under regulations, where food products containing additives must declare them either by their chemical name or corresponding E code, enabling consumers to verify ingredients against official authorization lists published by bodies like the . This approach addresses misconceptions that equate E numbers solely with synthetic chemicals, as evidenced by the prevalence of naturally sourced additives within the approved inventory, though the codes themselves prioritize functional categorization over origin or safety hierarchy.

Functional Roles in Food Production

Food additives identified by E numbers perform essential functions in food production, including preservation to inhibit microbial spoilage, coloration to maintain visual uniformity, stabilization to ensure textural consistency, and fortification to enhance nutritional content. Preservatives such as (E200) prevent deterioration by diffusing into microbial cells, partially dissociating, and disrupting intracellular pH and metabolic enzymes, thereby inhibiting growth of molds, yeasts, and certain bacteria. In laboratory studies, at concentrations as low as 0.1% delayed conidial germination and reduced biomass yields in by up to 50%, demonstrating its efficacy against fungal proliferation. Colour additives compensate for the degradation of natural pigments, which are prone to modification during due to heat, light, oxygen, or changes, ensuring product appearance remains consistent and appealing to consumers. Unlike unstable colorants that fade or alter unevenly, approved E-number colours provide reliable stability across storage and preparation conditions. Stabilisers and emulsifiers, such as lecithin (E322) and xanthan gum (E415), maintain emulsion integrity and texture by reducing surface tension and preventing ingredient separation in products like dressings and baked goods. These agents enable uniform dispersion and prolonged structural stability without altering inherent food properties. Nutritional fortificants like riboflavin (E101), a vitamin B2 source, are added to processed foods such as cereals to replenish essential micronutrients lost in refining or to address dietary shortfalls, supporting cellular energy production and redox reactions. This practice has been standard in grain fortification programs since the mid-20th century to mitigate deficiencies observed in populations consuming milled staples.

Regulatory Framework

EU Approval Process

The authorization of food additives for use in the , culminating in the assignment of an E number, requires submission of a comprehensive application under Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008 establishing a common procedure for food additives, enzymes, and flavourings. Applicants, typically industry stakeholders, provide a dossier detailing the additive's chemical identity, manufacturing process, purity specifications (including impurities and stability), evidence of technological efficacy at proposed use levels, and justification that its function—such as preservation, stabilization, or enhancement of properties—cannot be adequately achieved by existing approved means or good manufacturing practices. The dossier is submitted electronically to the , which verifies completeness and forwards it to the (EFSA) for scientific review, emphasizing first-principles evaluation of causal mechanisms underlying the additive's performance and any potential margins of safety in application. EFSA's Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings evaluates the submission for technological justification, requiring demonstration that the additive addresses a specific need in food production while minimizing levels to the lowest effective dose, often expressed as "" where no maximum is deemed necessary. If the assessment confirms efficacy and necessity beyond alternatives, the Commission, in consultation with Member States via the Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed, adopts a decision under Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 to include the additive in Annex II, specifying permitted food categories, functions, maximum levels or conditions of use, and labeling requirements—such as declaration by E number or systematic name on ingredient lists. Purity criteria and methods of analysis are codified in Annex III or separate specifications under Article 14, ensuring reproducibility and control in production. Provisional or temporary EU-wide authorizations have been granted in limited cases for additives previously approved at national levels pending full data submission, as seen in directives incorporating substances like and for specific uses, with expiration tied to completion of required evaluations to prevent indefinite reliance on incomplete evidence. Such measures include sunset provisions aligned with data deadlines, after which non-compliance results in withdrawal, prioritizing rigorous verification over extended provisional status.

Safety Evaluation by EFSA and JECFA

The (EFSA) systematically re-evaluates the safety of all food additives authorised in the EU before 20 January 2009, including approximately 300 E-numbered substances, through its Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF). These assessments integrate toxicological data from short- and long-term animal studies, human clinical trials, and epidemiological evidence, targeting critical endpoints such as , carcinogenicity, reproductive and developmental , , and immunotoxicity or allergenicity. Where data permit, EFSA establishes or revises an (ADI) expressed in mg/kg body weight per day, derived from the (NOAEL)—the highest dose showing no adverse effects in the most sensitive study—divided by a 100-fold uncertainty factor to extrapolate to humans, accounting for interspecies and intraspecies variability. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), convened since , conducts parallel international evaluations of food additives, providing toxicological benchmarks that EFSA frequently references or aligns with during EU-specific re-assessments. JECFA's process emphasises dose-response relationships from biochemical, toxicological, and exposure data, prioritising to set ADIs or temporary ADIs when data gaps exist, rather than defaulting to zero-tolerance thresholds absent demonstrated harm. Like EFSA, JECFA applies a standard 100-fold safety margin to NOAELs from pivotal studies, ensuring conservative estimates of safe lifetime exposure; for instance, in evaluations of certain additives, an ADI of 0–6 mg/kg body weight was allocated based on a NOAEL from chronic rodent bioassays. Both bodies collaborate indirectly through shared scientific principles and data exchanges, as seen in harmonised ADI values for globally traded additives, though EFSA adapts findings to exposure scenarios derived from consumption surveys. For (E 621), JECFA and EFSA meta-analyses of human challenge studies and long-term animal data have upheld an ADI "not specified," indicating no identifiable hazard at projected intakes up to several grams daily, countering early anecdotal concerns about via rigorous endpoint analysis. This approach underscores a commitment to quantitative risk characterisation over unsubstantiated precaution, with re-evaluations triggering tightened specifications or withdrawals if new evidence emerges, as in ongoing reviews of colours like silver (E 174).

Numbering Schemes and Classification

Structure of the Numbering System

The E numbering system designates approved food additives with the prefix "E", signifying evaluation and authorization for use within the following rigorous safety assessments by bodies such as the (EFSA). This prefix is followed by a three-digit numeric , with leading zeros added as needed to maintain a consistent format (e.g., E100 for or E102 for ), enabling efficient identification in labeling and regulatory documentation. The numeric sequence is not entirely consecutive, as gaps arise from early withdrawals or bans of assigned codes due to emerging data or other safety issues; E121, for example, was prohibited shortly after initial allocation because indicated potential carcinogenicity at high doses. Such discontinuities reflect an adaptive regulatory approach prioritizing over rigid sequencing, allowing for the reservation or reassignment of numbers without disrupting the system's overall utility. Formally, E numbers serve as unique identifiers tied to specific chemical substances or preparations, distinct from their colloquial shorthand for any , and they align closely with the Codex Alimentarius Commission's International Numbering System (INS), where equivalent codes (often identical sans the "E") promote global harmonization in additive nomenclature and oversight. This correspondence enhances practical categorization and cross-border regulatory efficiency without implying functional equivalence across all contexts.

Classification by Numeric Range and Additive Type

The E numbering system organizes approved food additives into broad categories based on numeric ranges, reflecting their primary functional roles as established through authorization processes. This classification scheme originated from early international standards harmonized under the and was formalized in the EU to streamline regulatory oversight, labeling, and assessment of similar additives within groups. While not rigidly prescriptive in EU Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008, the ranges serve as a conventional framework for grouping, enabling efficient toxicological evaluations and functional testing tailored to category-specific risks, such as efficacy for preservatives. Additives are assigned to ranges prioritizing their predominant verified function, though multifunctional substances—such as certain antioxidants that also act as preservatives—may appear in the category of primary use per EFSA evaluations. This approach minimizes in numbering while accommodating overlaps, with over 300 approved E numbers distributed across ranges up to E as of 2023 updates. The system extends beyond E999 for miscellaneous additives like enzymes and starches, reflecting expansions in approved substances.
Numeric RangePrimary Additive Type
E100–E199Colours
E200–E299Preservatives
E300–E399Antioxidants, acidity regulators
E400–E499Thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers
E500–E599Acidity regulators, anti-caking agents
E600–E699Flavour enhancers
E900–E999Glazing agents, gases, sweeteners
E1000+Miscellaneous (e.g., enzymes, modified starches)
This ranged classification supports risk communication by allowing regulators and manufacturers to apply category-wide data on efficacy and exposure; for instance, preservatives in the E200–E299 range undergo standardized testing for inhibition of microbial spoilage under specific EU guidelines. It also informs consumer awareness of additive purposes without delving into individual safety profiles.

Benefits and Achievements

Improvements in Food Safety and Preservation

The use of preservatives classified under E numbers, such as (E 250), has demonstrably enhanced by inhibiting the growth of like in cured meats, thereby preventing the formation of that causes potentially fatal . This additive disrupts germination and toxin production under anaerobic conditions typical of processed meats, a mechanism validated through extensive microbial challenge studies required for approval. Without such interventions, historical data from pre-additive eras indicate higher risks of outbreaks, as evidenced by reduced incidence in nitrite-treated products compared to untreated alternatives. Antioxidants within the E 300 series, including ascorbic acid (E 300) and tocopherols (E 306–E 309), mitigate oxidative degradation in , preventing rancidity that leads to off-flavors, texture breakdown, and loss of essential fatty acids and vitamins susceptible to peroxidation. These compounds scavenge free radicals and chelate pro-oxidant metals, extending beyond what natural barriers like packaging alone achieve, with empirical tests showing delayed increases in fortified oils and emulsions. This preservation maintains product integrity during distribution, reducing waste from spoilage-related contamination that could otherwise foster secondary microbial growth. Collectively, E-number preservatives and antioxidants have lowered risks by controlling spoilage pathways, as preservatives inhibit microbial proliferation and antioxidants preserve barriers against opportunistic pathogens, contributing to safer supply chains in regulated environments. Data from underscore that such additives enable consistent inhibition of hazards like mold, , and , with shelf-life extensions documented in products like items and , where untreated counterparts exhibit 2–5 times higher rejection rates due to deterioration.

Economic and Nutritional Advantages

Food additives designated by E numbers, particularly preservatives (E200–E299) and stabilizers, extend and maintain product integrity, leading to substantial reductions in spoilage-related losses for manufacturers and consumers. By preventing microbial growth and physical degradation, these additives minimize , which otherwise imposes significant economic burdens; for instance, in the dairy industry, approximately 20% of products are wasted, much of which occurs during distribution and storage where preservation technologies play a key role in mitigation. This efficiency supports scalable food production systems, lowering overall costs through optimized supply chains and reduced need for frequent restocking or disposal. Nutritionally, certain E numbers facilitate of processed foods with essential micronutrients, addressing deficiencies in diets dominated by staples with limited natural content. For example, E101 (, B2) is incorporated into cereals and products to bolster energy metabolism and prevent conditions like ariboflavinosis, which manifests as oral lesions and in deficient populations. Such enables cost-effective delivery of nutrients at scale, particularly benefiting regions or demographics reliant on affordable, processed foods where fresh produce access is constrained. Low-calorie sweeteners within the E900 series, such as E950 (acesulfame K) and E951 (), allow formulation of reduced-energy products that mimic sugar's sensory appeal without contributing metabolically disruptive caloric loads or glycemic spikes. These enable broader adoption of strategies, supporting nutritional goals like prevention by substituting high-sugar items, with evidence indicating associations with lower body weight and improved adherence to calorie-restricted diets. Economically, this fosters market growth in health-oriented foods, reducing long-term healthcare costs tied to obesity-related comorbidities while enhancing sustainability through diversified, nutrient-dense offerings.

Health Risks, Safety Data, and Controversies

Empirical Evidence on Potential Risks

Studies in animal models have demonstrated that certain emulsifiers, such as carboxymethylcellulose (E466) and polysorbate 80 (E433), can disrupt composition, leading to increased and low-grade . These effects were observed at doses approximating human consumption levels, with mechanisms involving reduced layer thickness and altered microbial diversity in mice. However, extrapolation to humans remains limited due to species differences in gut and responses. Prospective cohort studies from the French NutriNet-Santé study, involving over 90,000 participants followed from 2009 to 2021, reported associations between higher intakes of emulsifiers like mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids (E471) and cellulose gum (E466) and increased risks of (hazard ratio 1.15 for highest vs. lowest ) and overall cancer incidence ( 1.24). These observational findings adjusted for confounders such as age, sex, and dietary factors but cannot establish , as residual from overall diet quality or lifestyle remains possible; randomized controlled trials confirming direct causation are lacking. For color additives, (E102) has been linked to reactions, including urticaria and , in a subset of individuals. Double-blind challenge studies indicate that 1-8% of patients with chronic or acute urticaria exhibit reproducible symptoms upon exposure to doses as low as 0.22 mg, though general population prevalence of intolerance is estimated below 1%. These reactions are IgE-mediated in rare cases and more common among those with aspirin sensitivity or pre-existing urticaria, but population-level affects fewer than 0.12% without predisposing conditions. Acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) for E numbers are derived with safety margins typically exceeding observed no-effect levels by 100-fold, accounting for interspecies and interindividual variability. Empirical dietary exposure assessments in the show that average intakes from compliant foods rarely exceed ADIs, with exceedances limited to high consumers of specific products and not linked to adverse outcomes in surveillance data.

Regulatory Re-evaluations and Acceptable Daily Intakes

The (EFSA) conducts systematic re-evaluations of all food additives authorised in the EU prior to 20 January 2009, as mandated by Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008, to incorporate emerging scientific data and refine safety assessments. These reviews integrate toxicological studies, exposure estimates, and epidemiological evidence, potentially leading to revisions in permitted levels, new acceptable daily intakes (ADIs), or outright withdrawals when risks are substantiated. ADIs represent the estimated amount of an additive that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable risk, typically derived by dividing the (NOAEL) from animal or human studies by an uncertainty factor of 100 to account for interspecies and intraspecies variability. Re-evaluations have resulted in specific actions, such as the 2007 withdrawal of Red 2G (E128), a synthetic azo colour, following EFSA's identification of its potential carcinogenicity based on evidence of release and concerns in bacterial tests and animal models. This led to emergency suspension via Commission Regulation (EC) No 884/2007, demonstrating the process's responsiveness to new metabolic and toxicological data. Similarly, re-assessments of preservatives like (E249) and (E250) in 2017 maintained a group ADI of 0.07 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day, expressed as nitrite ion, derived from a NOAEL of 7 mg/kg bw per day in chronic rat studies divided by 100, while noting formation of N-nitrosamines as a key influencing use levels. For flavour enhancers, the 2017 re-evaluation of (E621) and related glutamates established a group ADI of 30 mg/kg bw per day, expressed as , based on a NOAEL of 3,500 mg/kg bw per day from long-term feeding studies in , adjusted by the standard safety factor; this reflects no evidence of or other adverse effects at relevant exposures in humans. Recent examples include the 2024 re-evaluation of (E954), where EFSA increased the ADI to 9 mg/kg bw per day from 5 mg/kg, citing refined toxicokinetic data and absence of carcinogenicity at lower doses in updated bioassays. These iterative processes ensure ADIs and authorisations evolve with , prioritising causal links from controlled studies over speculative concerns.

Public Perception vs. Scientific Consensus

Public perception of E numbers remains largely negative, with many consumers associating the numerical designations with artificial chemicals and risks, prompting widespread avoidance in choices. A qualitative study among Dutch consumers revealed persistent distrust rooted in perceptions of additives as unnecessary or unnatural, despite their role in maintaining . This sentiment drives the "clean label" trend, where emphasizes additive-free products, leading up to 84% of surveyed individuals to shun flavor enhancers and similar categories. Such avoidance is amplified by media portrayals that selectively highlight anecdotal adverse reactions, fostering disproportionate to empirical risks. In contrast, the scientific consensus, as articulated by regulatory bodies like the (EFSA) and the (WHO), affirms that approved E numbers undergo rigorous toxicological evaluations and are safe at levels below acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). These assessments prioritize causal evidence from controlled studies over correlative claims, revealing no epidemic of diseases attributable to E numbers; instead, broader chronic conditions link more strongly to excessive consumption patterns than to individual additives. Notably, true IgE-mediated food allergies stem from proteins in ingredients like nuts or , not the small-molecule structures of most E numbers, which rarely provoke such responses. Natural-origin additives, such as E270 ( from ), exemplify how E numbering applies equally to substances consumers deem benign, underscoring that untested "natural" alternatives could harbor undisclosed hazards if not similarly vetted. Proponents of clean-label argue for simplicity and perceived purity, yet indicates that minimizing preservatives heightens vulnerability to microbial spoilage and pathogens in perishable foods, potentially offsetting gains from additive removal. This tension highlights a disconnect where public heuristics favor familiarity over -driven , often overlooking how E numbers enable safer, longer-lasting supplies without of systemic at regulated doses. Mainstream reporting's toward sensational negatives—evident in selective coverage of rare sensitivities—further skews perception, as peer-reviewed syntheses consistently prioritize long-term data over isolated incidents.

International Context and Equivalents

Global Recognition via

The International Numbering System (INS) for food additives, established by the Commission, provides a global framework that closely mirrors the EU's E numbering system, assigning identical numerical codes to many substances—for instance, INS 621 designates , equivalent to E621—facilitating cross-border consistency in identification and regulation. This alignment stems from the EU's adoption of Codex principles in developing its E codes, ensuring that safety evaluations and labeling practices can be harmonized internationally without necessitating separate systems. Safety assessments conducted by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), which has evaluated over 2,600 food additives since 1956 based on biochemical, toxicological, and exposure data, directly inform Codex INS specifications and maximum permitted levels. JECFA's risk assessments, requested by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, establish acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) and purity criteria that underpin INS entries, promoting empirical grounded in global toxicological evidence rather than regional variances. With 189 members—including 188 countries and the —the INS system has been adopted or referenced in standards across these jurisdictions, enabling smoother by enforcing uniform safety thresholds that reduce non-tariff barriers and minimize discrepancies in additive approvals. This widespread recognition empirically supports export efficiency, as evidenced by the harmonized thresholds preventing rejections at borders due to divergent purity or usage limits, while maintaining through data-driven consistency. Updates to INS designations and Codex standards occur through periodic meetings of the Codex Committee on Food Additives (CCFA), which integrates the latest JECFA evaluations and global input; for example, the 55th CCFA session scheduled for March 2025 in will review proposed specifications from JECFA's 87th meeting. These sessions incorporate empirical data from international surveillance and risk assessments, ensuring standards evolve with emerging scientific findings on additive safety and usage.

Comparisons with Non-EU Systems

In the United States, the (FDA) regulates food additives through a framework that includes the (GRAS) provision, enabling manufacturers to self-affirm the safety of many substances via expert consensus or historical use without requiring pre-market FDA notification or approval, in contrast to the EU's mandatory authorization and positive listing for E-numbered additives. This self-determination process allows for a wider array of additives—often exceeding 10,000 substances including flavors and colors—without a standardized numerical coding system akin to E numbers, fostering greater industry flexibility but relying on post-market surveillance for enforcement. While the EU applies a to prohibit additives like certain azo dyes (e.g., Yellow 6) based on potential concerns pending full data, the US permits them after demonstrating no unreasonable risk under intended conditions, resulting in divergent approvals such as the EU's ban on while the US retains it for baked goods. Post-Brexit, the United Kingdom's (FSA) has retained the core E-number classification and approval mechanisms inherited from law, with applications for new additives undergoing safety assessments similar to those by the (EFSA), though now under national oversight without automatic alignment. Divergences remain limited, primarily in specific re-evaluations; for example, the UK continues to authorize (E171) as a colorant following its 2022 prohibition over DNA damage risks, prioritizing FSA's independent risk analysis over harmonized bans. This approach enables minor tweaks, such as faster approvals, but maintains overall compatibility to facilitate trade, with no wholesale shift to a US-style model. Many non-EU developing countries adopt partial guidelines for additives but implement laxer pre-market controls and enforcement due to resource constraints, often lacking comprehensive registries equivalent to E numbers and permitting unauthorized or impure substances that elevate contamination hazards. Verifiable data indicate higher adulteration rates, such as in dairy or industrial dyes in spices, correlating with elevated burdens—estimated at 420,000 deaths annually in low- and middle-income nations versus far lower per capita rates in the —stemming from inadequate monitoring rather than intentional policy leniency.

Selected Categories of E Numbers

Colours (E100–E199)

The E100–E199 series comprises food colourings authorised under EU regulations to deliver stable pigmentation in foodstuffs, countering the instability of natural dyes that degrade via oxidation, photolysis, or thermal breakdown, thereby ensuring reproducible visual quality in commercial production. Synthetic colours within this range, such as azo compounds, maintain hue integrity across diverse processing conditions and storage durations, reducing manufacturing variability compared to plant extracts susceptible to environmental fluctuations in yield and potency. This stability facilitates consistent consumer appeal in items like carbonated drinks and confectionery, where natural alternatives like beetroot or annatto often result in batch-to-batch inconsistencies. Key exemplars include E100 (curcumin), a polyphenolic extract from Curcuma longa rhizomes yielding yellow-orange tones, applied in baked goods, dairy, and mustards at concentrations up to 200 mg/kg in certain foods. In contrast, E129 (), a disodium salt of 1-(4-sulfo-1-naphthylazo)-2-naphthol-6-sulfonic acid, serves as a synthetic red for beverages, gels, and snacks, prized for its resistance to pH shifts and heat up to 100°C. These additives supplant less reliable natural sources, minimising defects like uneven colouring from variable extraction efficiencies in or . Safety evaluations by the (EFSA) assign acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) reflecting low acute toxicity, with many colours like (E101) and (E100) deemed safe without numerical limits (ADI not specified), indicating no identifiable hazard at projected exposures. For synthetic azo dyes, ADIs range from 0.5–7 mg/kg body weight, derived from no-observed-adverse-effect levels in rodent genotoxicity and carcinogenicity assays adjusted by uncertainty factors. Specific colours—tartrazine (E102), sunset yellow (E110), and Allura Red (E129)—require warning labels under Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008, alerting that they "may have an adverse effect on the activity and attention" in children, based on provocation trials including the 2007 Southampton study showing modest hyperactive responses in 8–10% of participants to mixtures, though EFSA assessments emphasise limited evidence, absence of dose-response clarity, and failure in isolated colour replications. Meta-analyses confirm small effect sizes confined to sensitive subsets, without establishing causality beyond additive interactions or influences.

Preservatives (E200–E299)

Preservatives classified under E200–E299 primarily function as antimicrobial agents that inhibit the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds in food products, thereby controlling pathogens such as and spoilage fungi to extend and reduce risks. These compounds, including sorbates, benzoates, and nitrites, are most effective in acidic environments ( below 6.5) where they disrupt microbial cell membranes or metabolic processes, with empirical studies demonstrating reductions in pathogen loads by up to 99% in treated versus untreated samples under controlled conditions. Regulatory bodies like the (EFSA) and U.S. (FDA) approve their use based on dose-response data showing efficacy without exceeding safe intake thresholds. Potassium sorbate (E202), the potassium salt of , exemplifies efficacy against fungi and yeasts, inhibiting growth by altering permeability and activity, with studies reporting complete suppression of mold proliferation in fruit-based products at concentrations of 0.025–0.1%. It is commonly applied in jams, beverages, and cheeses to prevent fungal spoilage, where it demonstrates fungistatic effects across ranges up to 6.5, though less potent against certain bacteria like . EFSA's re-evaluation confirmed no genotoxic potential and established an (ADI) of 3 mg/kg body weight per day, derived from chronic toxicity studies in rodents showing no adverse effects at relevant exposures. Sodium nitrite (E250) serves as a key in cured meats, where it prevents Clostridium botulinum spore germination and toxin production by interfering with bacterial respiration, with historical data linking its absence to outbreaks prior to widespread adoption in the early . This action is dose-dependent, achieving inhibition at levels of 100–150 mg/kg in products like sausages, balancing potential formation of N-nitroso compounds (linked to carcinogenicity in high-dose animal models) against prevention, as evidenced by epidemiological records of reduced incidence in nitrite-treated meats. EFSA sets the ADI at 0.07 mg/kg body weight per day for nitrites, reflecting human exposure modeling and no-observed-adverse-effect levels from subchronic studies, though rare cases of occur only at extreme intakes far exceeding regulated food levels, typically from contaminated or accidental overconsumption rather than standard preserved foods.

Antioxidants and Acidity Regulators (E300–E399)

The E300–E399 category comprises food additives authorized in the primarily for their roles as antioxidants, which inhibit and enzymatic browning to maintain flavor integrity, nutritional content, and visual appeal in fats, oils, and aqueous food systems, and as acidity regulators, which adjust to optimize microbial control, texture stability, and properties. These functions causally prevent quality degradation during , storage, and distribution, enabling scalable food production without disproportionate reliance on or short supply chains. Most additives in this range occur naturally in fruits, , and processes, with synthetic variants mirroring biochemical pathways for equivalence in efficacy and safety. Ascorbic acid (E300), chemically L-ascorbic acid and identical to , functions as a primary by donating electrons to neutralize and reducing ferric ions to forms, thereby averting off-flavors and loss in beverages, products, and meat cures. Its salts, (E301) and (E302), provide similar protection in high-salt or calcium-fortified matrices. The EFSA Panel on Food Additives re-evaluated these in 2015, determining no or carcinogenicity, with acute oral LD50 values exceeding 11,000 mg/kg in rats and no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) above 1,000 mg/kg body weight per day in subchronic studies; consequently, no ADI was specified, affirming safety at authorized uses up to levels. Citric acid (E330), a tricarboxylic acid produced via fermentation or extracted from , regulates acidity while synergizing antioxidants by sequestering catalytic metals like iron and , thus curbing in soft drinks, jams, and . It lowers to inhibit pathogens such as in low-acid adjuncts. EFSA's 2020 re-evaluation of organic acids, including , confirmed no toxicological concerns, with ADI "not specified" by JECFA since 1973 due to rapid metabolism via the Krebs cycle and absence of accumulation; exposure estimates from typical uses (e.g., 0.5–2 g/L in beverages) remain below endogenous production rates of 1–2 g/day in humans. Tocopherols (E306–E309), mixed or isolated forms of from soy or sunflower oils, exhibit chain-breaking activity against peroxyl radicals in lipid-rich foods like and infant formulas, extending by factors of 2–5 times in accelerated oxidation tests. (E270), generated from , buffers pH in and sausages, enhancing heat stability and curbing spoilage organisms. These additives collectively demonstrate high margins, with EFSA and FDA GRAS statuses predicated on dose-response showing thresholds for effects orders of magnitude above dietary intakes (e.g., mean European exposure to E300 at 20–100 mg/day versus nutritional needs of 75–90 mg).

Thickeners, Stabilisers, and Emulsifiers (E400–E499)

Thickeners, stabilisers, and emulsifiers (E400–E499) modify texture by increasing , forming gels, or enabling uniform dispersion of immiscible components such as fats in aqueous media, as seen in dressings and creams. These additives derive from natural sources like or fruits or are synthetically modified , with alginates (E400–E404) extracted from to provide shear-thinning properties for smooth pouring. Common examples include (E407), a sulfated from red used at concentrations of 0.1–1% to stabilise desserts against syneresis, and (E440), a fruit-derived galacturonic acid that gels under acidic conditions with , as in jams at pH below 3.5. These agents enhance product utility by improving through controlled , preventing in low-fat emulsions like yogurts, and extending via stabilised structures that resist fluctuations during processing or storage. In reduced-calorie formulations, they compensate for fat removal by mimicking creamy textures, with emulsifiers like carboxymethylcellulose (E466) binding water to maintain homogeneity in gluten-free baked goods. Carboxymethylcellulose, a derivative, functions at 0.2–0.5% to suspend particles in beverages, reducing rates by up to 90% in experimental models. Regulatory bodies like the (EFSA) have re-evaluated many E400–E499 additives, affirming safety for approved uses; for (E440i and E440ii), the 2017 assessment found no or carcinogenicity concerns at typical intakes below 10 g/day for adults. Alginates (E400–E404) were similarly cleared in 2017, with no adverse effects observed in subchronic studies up to 5% dietary levels in rats. (E407) received EFSA confirmation of safety in 2018, establishing an of 75 mg/kg body weight, unchanged as of 2024 despite industry-submitted data. Emerging 2023 research on emulsifiers like E466 indicates potential modulation in models, with 1–5% dietary exposure linked to increased gut permeability and low-grade via mucus layer , though human epidemiological data remain limited and EFSA exposure estimates (0.3–1.2 mg/kg/day) fall below no-observed-adverse-effect levels from . These findings prompt ongoing scrutiny but do not alter current approvals, which incorporate margins of safety exceeding 100-fold over mean exposures. Overall, their role in enabling consistent, appealing textures supports widespread application in processed foods without evidence of systemic risks at regulated doses.

Acidity Regulators and Anti-Caking Agents (E500–E599)

The E500–E599 range comprises inorganic compounds, primarily salts and acids, authorized as food additives in the for regulating acidity and preventing caking in dry products. Acidity regulators in this category, such as carbonates and bicarbonates, neutralize acids or release upon reaction, enabling leavening in baked goods and adjustment in beverages and processed foods. Anti-caking agents, including ferrocyanides and silicates, inhibit moisture-induced clumping by adsorbing or disrupting formation, ensuring free-flowing properties in items like table salt and powdered seasonings. Prominent acidity regulators include sodium carbonates (E500), which encompass (E500(i)), or (E500(ii)), and (E500(iii)); these are used in powders to generate CO2 for rising and in effervescent drinks for fizz. carbonates (E501) serve analogous roles, often in and cocoa processing to adjust . The (EFSA) has evaluated sodium carbonates as safe for unrestricted use in food, with no specified (ADI) due to their low toxicity and historical consumption patterns, classifying them as when adhering to good manufacturing practices. Anti-caking agents like (E535), (E536), and calcium ferrocyanide (E538) are added in trace amounts (typically up to 20 mg/kg in salt) to table salt and other powders, where they stabilize against without altering taste or solubility. (E551) functions similarly by forming a physical barrier on particle surfaces. EFSA's re-evaluation concluded that ferrocyanides pose no safety concern at authorized levels, as they remain stable and do not release toxic ions under physiological conditions, supported by toxicological data showing no , carcinogenicity, or reproductive effects. These additives enhance manufacturing efficiency, such as in producing uniform mixes or non-clumping spices, but their use is strictly limited by EU Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 to levels where no specific maximum is set, ensuring minimal residues. While ubiquitous in processed foods, potential concerns like sodium intake from carbonates are mitigated by overall dietary guidelines rather than additive-specific risks, with no evidence of adverse effects from typical exposures.

Flavour Enhancers (E600–E699)

Flavour enhancers in the E600–E699 series primarily comprise and that intensify the taste, a savory sensation naturally present in foods like , cheese, and tomatoes. These additives amplify existing flavors without adding significant calories or altering the primary taste profile, allowing for more efficient seasoning in processed foods. The most prominent is E621, (MSG), derived from , which occurs endogenously in the and many natural foods. Other examples include E620 (), E622 (), and E635 (disodium 5'-ribonucleotides), a combination of guanylate and inosinate that synergistically enhances umami at lower concentrations. Safety assessments by regulatory bodies confirm the low risk of these compounds. The (EFSA) established a group (ADI) of 30 mg/kg body weight per day, expressed as , for glutamates (E620–E625), based on no-observed-adverse-effect levels from animal studies extrapolated to humans, with no evidence of , , or at relevant doses. Similarly, peer-reviewed reviews dismiss claims of hypersensitivity or "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" (symptoms like headache and flushing attributed to MSG), attributing reports to effects or methodological flaws in early anecdotal studies rather than causal links, as double-blind trials show no consistent adverse reactions in sensitive populations. These enhancers offer practical benefits in efforts to curb excessive sodium consumption. Umami compounds can reduce salt requirements by 10–22% in foods like soups and snacks while maintaining , potentially lowering population-level salt intake and aiding management, as demonstrated in modeling studies and sensory trials. For instance, incorporating MSG or ribonucleotides enhances flavor perception, enabling reformulation of products to align with dietary guidelines without compromising consumer acceptance. This application counters unfounded fears by highlighting evidence-based utility over bias-driven narratives in some media and advocacy sources.

Glazing Agents, Gases, and Sweeteners (E900–E999)

The E900–E999 category of E numbers designates food additives functioning primarily as glazing agents, gases, and sweeteners within the regulatory framework. Glazing agents form thin, shiny coatings on surfaces like and fruits to enhance appearance and provide moisture barriers, while gases serve as propellants, agents, or packaging atmospheres to extend and improve texture. Sweeteners, often high-intensity substitutes for , enable the formulation of low-calorie products by delivering sweetness without significant caloric contribution. These additives undergo rigorous evaluation by the (EFSA) for safety and efficacy prior to authorization. Carbon dioxide (E290), a common gas in this range, is utilized for carbonating beverages to produce , as a in aerosols, and in modified atmosphere packaging to displace oxygen and suppress microbial proliferation in products such as meats and baked goods. Its inert nature at food-grade concentrations minimizes reactivity, with no (ADI) established due to low systemic absorption; EFSA and provisions confirm its safety for these applications without quantified exposure limits beyond good manufacturing practices. Other gases like (E941) similarly support packaging integrity by preventing oxidation. Aspartame (E951), a methyl ester sweetener approximately 200 times sweeter than , is incorporated into sugar-free beverages, chewing gums, and tabletop sweeteners to reduce caloric density. At its authorized EU levels, typical dietary exposures remain below the ADI of 40 mg/kg body weight, as reaffirmed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in June 2023 following a comprehensive review of , carcinogenicity, and epidemiological data, which found no convincing evidence of harm within this threshold. This assessment contrasts with the International Agency for Research on Cancer's (IARC) concurrent classification of as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" (Group 2B), based on limited evidence from animal studies and inadequate human data linking it to and other outcomes; JECFA prioritized over hazard identification, concluding that exceeding the ADI would be required for potential effects. Glazing agents like (E901) and (E903) are applied via spraying or dipping to , chocolate-coated fruits, and peels, yielding a polished sheen that deters moisture loss and microbial adhesion while maintaining aesthetic appeal in retail displays. EFSA re-evaluations, such as for dimethyl polysiloxane (E900) used in anti-foaming and glazing capacities, have set ADIs (e.g., 17 mg/kg body weight for E900) with no safety concerns at reported use levels across food categories. These additives collectively facilitate product stability, sensory enhancement, and formulation flexibility in low-sugar diets, though their inert or non-nutritive profiles necessitate monitoring for cumulative exposure in vulnerable populations like children.

Additional Additives (E1000–E1599)

The E1000–E1599 series designates miscellaneous food additives approved for specialized functions not covered by primary categories, such as bulking agents and select preparations, reflecting the EU system's capacity to incorporate innovations like low-calorie substitutes and biotechnological enzymes as evolves. These additives undergo evaluation by the (EFSA) for safety, efficacy, and necessity, with approvals granted only after toxicological studies demonstrate no adverse effects at projected intake levels from intended uses. As of , this range includes fewer than 50 authorized substances, emphasizing targeted applications over broad deployment. A prominent example is (E 1200), a non-digestible, low-calorie synthesized from dextrose, , and , functioning as a bulking agent, , and soluble in products like low-sugar , baked goods, and beverages. It provides bulk and texture without significant caloric contribution—yielding approximately 1 kcal/g versus 4 kcal/g for sugars—and supports reduced-fat formulations by retaining moisture. EFSA's 2021 re-evaluation, incorporating exposure data from dietary surveys across European populations, concluded no numerical (ADI) is required, as mean and high-level intakes (up to 18 g/day for adults) present no safety concerns, including for gastrointestinal effects at doses below 90 g/day. This approval accommodates niche demands in low-carbohydrate diets without evidence of , carcinogenicity, or in . Certain additives, such as those derived from microbial or genetically modified sources, exemplify the range's adaptation to biotechnological progress, enabling precise modifications like improved handling or protein cross-linking in processed s. Approvals require comprehensive dossiers including genetic stability assessments for biotech-derived enzymes, allergenicity evaluations, and exposure modeling, with EFSA issuing opinions prior to EU-wide authorization under Regulation (EC) No 1332/2008. Post-market surveillance, including re-assessments every 10 years, ensures ongoing safety amid advances; for instance, novel enzymes must demonstrate technological advantages over non-additive alternatives. This framework has facilitated approvals for enzymes like preparations since the early 2000s, balancing innovation with risk mitigation based on empirical toxicological data.

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