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Ertapenem
Clinical data
Trade namesInvanz
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa614001
License data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Intramuscular, intravenous
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability90% (intramuscular)
Protein bindingInversely proportional to concentration; 85 to 95%
MetabolismHydrolysis of beta-lactam ring, CYP not involved
Elimination half-life4 hours
ExcretionKidney (80%) and fecal (10%)
Identifiers
  • (4R,5S,6S)-3-[(3S,5S)-5-[(3-carboxyphenyl)carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-3-yl]sulfanyl-6-(1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylic acid
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC22H25N3O7S
Molar mass475.52 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • O=C(O)c1cc(ccc1)NC(=O)[C@H]4NC[C@@H](S\C3=C(\N2C(=O)[C@H]([C@H](O)C)[C@H]2[C@H]3C)C(=O)O)C4
  • InChI=1S/C22H25N3O7S/c1-9-16-15(10(2)26)20(28)25(16)17(22(31)32)18(9)33-13-7-14(23-8-13)19(27)24-12-5-3-4-11(6-12)21(29)30/h3-6,9-10,13-16,23,26H,7-8H2,1-2H3,(H,24,27)(H,29,30)(H,31,32)/t9-,10-,13+,14+,15-,16-/m1/s1 checkY
  • Key:JUZNIMUFDBIJCM-ANEDZVCMSA-N checkY
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

Ertapenem, sold under the brand name Invanz, is a carbapenem antibiotic medication used for the treatment of infections of the abdomen, the lungs, the upper part of the female reproductive system, and the diabetic foot.[7][8]

The most common side effects include diarrhoea, nausea, headache, and problems around the area where the medicine is infused. It can significantly reduce the concentrations of valproic acid, an anti-seizure medication, in the blood to the point where it loses its effectiveness.[6]

Ertapenem was approved for medical use in the United States in November 2001,[5][9] and in the European Union in April 2002.[6] It is marketed by Merck.[5][6]

Medical uses

[edit]

Ertapenem is indicated for the treatment of intra-abdominal infections, community-acquired pneumonia, pelvic infections, and diabetic foot infections, with bacteria that are susceptible to this drug, or expected to be so. It can also be used to prevent infections after colorectal surgery. In the United States it is also indicated for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections including pyelonephritis.[5][7][10] It is a potential effective alternative treatment for ceftriaxone-resistant gonorrhoea.[11][12]

It is given as an intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection. The drug is not approved for children under three months of age.[5][7][10]

Contraindications

[edit]

The drug is contraindicated in people with known hypersensitivity to ertapenem or other carbapenem type antibiotics, or with severe hypersensitivity reactions (such as anaphylaxis or severe skin reactions) to other beta-lactam antibiotics in the past.[5][7][10]

Side effects

[edit]

Common side effects are diarrhoea (in 5% of people receiving ertapenem), nausea (in 3%) and vomiting, reactions at the injection site (5%, including pain and inflammation of the vein), and headache. Uncommon but possibly serious side effects include candida infections, seizures, skin reactions such as rashes (including nappy rash in children), and anaphylaxis.[10][13] Hypersensitivity cross-reactions with penicillins are rare.[14]

Ertapenem also can have an effect on some blood tests such as liver enzymes and platelet count.[7][10]

Overdose

[edit]

Overdosing is unlikely. In adults receiving the threefold therapeutic dose over eight days, no significant toxicity was observed.[10]

Interactions

[edit]

Ertapenem can reduce the concentrations of valproic acid, an epilepsy medication, by 70% and perhaps up to 95% within 24 hours; this can result in inadequate control of seizures.[13][15] The effect is described for other carbapenem antibiotics as well, but seems to be most pronounced for ertapenem and meropenem.[15] This is likely caused by several mechanisms: carbapenems inhibit transport of valproic acid from the gut into the body; they may increase metabolization of valproic acid to its glucuronide; they may reduce enterohepatic circulation and recycling of valproic acid glucuronide by acting against gut bacteria; and they may block transporter proteins that pump valproic acid out of red blood cells into the blood plasma.[16][17] The effect is also seen in reverse: in cases where ertapenem has been withdrawn blood concentrations of valproate have been reported to rise.[18][19]

Drug interactions via the cytochrome P450 enzyme system or the P-glycoprotein transporter are considered unlikely, as these proteins are not involved in the metabolism of ertapenem.[10]

Pharmacology

[edit]

Mechanism of action

[edit]
Main article: β-lactam antibiotic § Mechanism of action

Like all beta-lactam antibiotics, ertapenem is bactericidal.[14] It inhibits cross-linking of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls by blocking a type of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). When a bacterial cell tries to synthesize new cell wall in order to grow and divide, the attempt fails, rendering the cell vulnerable to osmotic disruption. Additionally, the surplus of peptidoglycan precursors triggers autolytic enzymes of the bacterium, which disintegrate the existing wall.[20]

Bacteria attempting to grow and divide in the presence of ertapenem shed their cell walls, forming fragile spheroplasts.[21]

Susceptible bacteria

[edit]

Bacteria that are normally susceptible to ertapenem treatment (at least in Europe) include:[10]

Resistance

[edit]

Bacteria that show no clinically relevant response to ertapenem include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus species (including MRSA) as well as Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas.[10][14]

Microorganisms can become resistant to ertapenem by producing carbapenemases, enzymes that inactivate the drug by opening the beta-lactam ring. Other mechanisms of resistance against carbapenems are development of efflux pumps that transport the antibiotics out of the bacterial cells, mutations of PBPs, and mutations of Gram-negative bacteria's porins which are necessary for carbapenems to enter the bacteria.[8]

Pharmacokinetics

[edit]
The main metabolite in humans, which is pharmacologically inactive[7][22]

The route of administration has only a slight effect on the drug's concentrations in the bloodstream: when given as an intramuscular injection, its bioavailability is 90% (as compared to the 100% availability when given directly into a vein), and its highest concentrations in the blood plasma are reached after about 2.3 hours. In the blood, 85–95% of ertapenem are bound to plasma proteins, mostly albumin. Plasma protein binding is higher for lower concentrations, and vice versa. The drug is only partially metabolized, with 94% circulating in form of the parent substance and 6% as metabolites. The main metabolite is the inactive hydrolysis product with the ring opened.[7]

Ertapenem is mainly eliminated via the kidneys and urine (80%) and to a minor extent via the faeces (10%). Of the 80% found in the urine, 38% is excreted as the parent drug and 37% as the ring-opened metabolite. The biological half-life is about 3.5 hours in women, 4.2 hours in men and 2.5 hours in children up to 12 years of age.[7][13]

Comparison with other antibiotics

[edit]

Like all carbapenem antibiotics, ertapenem has a broader spectrum of activity than other beta-lactams like penicillins and cephalosporins. Similar to doripenem, meropenem and biapenem, ertapenem has slightly better activity against many Gram-negative bacteria than other carbapenems such as imipenem. In contrast to imipenem, doripenem and meropenem, it is not active against Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter species.[8][14]

For diabetic foot infections, ertapenem as a single treatment or in combination with vancomycin has been found to be more effective and have fewer side effects than tigecycline, but in severe cases it is less effective than piperacillin/tazobactam.[23][24]

Regarding pharmacokinetics, imipenem, doripenem and meropenem have lower plasma protein bindings (up to 25%) and shorter half-lives (about one hour) than ertapenem.[14]

History

[edit]

Ertapenem is marketed by Merck. It was approved for use by the US Food and Drug Administration in November 2001,[9] and by the European Medicines Agency in April 2002.[6][25]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ertapenem

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from Grokipedia
Ertapenem is a synthetic, parenteral carbapenem antibiotic used to treat moderate to severe bacterial infections caused by susceptible organisms in adults and pediatric patients aged 3 months and older.[1] It is administered via intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection and was first approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in November 2001 for intravenous or intramuscular use.[2] Developed and marketed by Merck & Co. under the brand name Invanz, ertapenem exhibits bactericidal activity by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), particularly PBPs 2 and 3, thereby inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis.[3][1] The primary indications for ertapenem include complicated intra-abdominal infections due to Escherichia coli, Clostridium clostridioforme, Eubacterium lentum, Peptostreptococcus species, Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides distasonis, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bacteroides uniformis, or Bacteroides ovatus; complicated skin and skin structure infections, including diabetic foot infections without osteomyelitis, caused by Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible isolates only), Streptococcus pyogenes, E. coli, or Peptostreptococcus species; community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (penicillin-susceptible isolates only), including cases concurrently with Haemophilus influenzae; complicated urinary tract infections including pyelonephritis caused by E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae; and acute gynecological infections caused by Streptococcus agalactiae, E. coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica, Peptostreptococcus species, Prevotella bivia, or Gardnerella vaginalis.[1] Additionally, it is indicated for the prophylaxis of surgical site infections following elective colorectal surgery in adults.[1] Ertapenem is not recommended for empiric treatment of severe or life-threatening infections or infections where a more potent beta-lactam or aminoglycoside is indicated due to its narrower spectrum compared to other carbapenems like imipenem or meropenem.[3] Pharmacologically, ertapenem demonstrates approximately 90% bioavailability when administered intramuscularly, with a plasma half-life of about 4 hours in adults and 2.5 hours in children aged 3 months to 12 years, and is primarily eliminated via the kidneys (about 80% in urine, with 38% unchanged).[1] The standard dosage for adults and adolescents 13 years and older is 1 gram once daily, while pediatric patients aged 3 months to 12 years receive 15 mg/kg twice daily (up to a maximum of 1 gram per day); dosing adjustments are required for renal impairment, with hemodialysis patients receiving a supplemental dose post-dialysis.[1] Key warnings include the risk of serious hypersensitivity reactions, seizures (particularly in patients with CNS disorders), decreased valproic acid levels when co-administered, and Clostridioides difficile-associated diarrhea; it is contraindicated in individuals with known hypersensitivity to beta-lactams or amide-type local anesthetics due to the lidocaine diluent used in intramuscular formulations.[1]

Clinical Use

Indications

Ertapenem is approved for the treatment of various moderate to severe bacterial infections in adults and pediatric patients aged 3 months and older. These include complicated intra-abdominal infections due to Escherichia coli, Clostridium clostridioforme, Eubacterium lentum, Peptostreptococcus species, Bacteroides fragilis, B. distasonis, B. ovatus, B. thetaiotaomicron, or B. uniformis, such as complicated appendicitis and peritonitis.[1] It is also indicated for community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (penicillin-susceptible strains only), Haemophilus influenzae (beta-lactamase–negative strains only), or Moraxella catarrhalis.[1] Complicated skin and skin structure infections, including diabetic foot infections without osteomyelitis, caused by Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible isolates only), Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Bacteroides fragilis, Peptostreptococcus species, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica, or Prevotella bivia, represent another key approved use.[1] Additionally, ertapenem treats complicated urinary tract infections, including pyelonephritis, caused by E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae.[1] For acute pelvic infections, such as postpartum endomyometritis, septic abortion, or post-surgical gynecologic infections due to Streptococcus agalactiae, E. coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica, Peptostreptococcus species, or Prevotella bivia, it provides effective coverage.[1] In adults, ertapenem is approved for prophylaxis of surgical site infections following elective colorectal surgery, administered as a single 1 g dose approximately 1 hour prior to surgery.[1] The drug is not recommended for use in neonates under 3 months of age, as no safety and efficacy data are available in this population.[1] Typical durations of therapy are 5 to 14 days for complicated intra-abdominal infections, 7 to 14 days for complicated skin and skin structure infections (up to 28 days for diabetic foot infections), 10 to 14 days for community-acquired pneumonia, 10 to 14 days for complicated urinary tract infections, and 3 to 10 days for acute pelvic infections. In diabetic foot infections, treatment may extend up to 28 days with ertapenem alone or in combination with appropriate oral therapy following initial parenteral administration.[1] Emerging off-label uses include ertapenem as an alternative for treating ceftriaxone-resistant gonorrhea, supported by 2022 clinical studies demonstrating non-inferiority of a single 1 g dose to 500 mg ceftriaxone in eradicating Neisseria gonorrhoeae at anogenital and extragenital sites. In vitro data further confirm ertapenem's activity against ceftriaxone-resistant isolates.[4][5]

Dosage and Administration

Ertapenem is administered as a 1 g dose once daily to adults via intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection for the treatment of various bacterial infections.[1] For pediatric patients aged 3 months to 12 years, the recommended dose is 15 mg/kg twice daily, not to exceed 1 g per day, administered intravenously or intramuscularly.[1] In children 13 years and older, dosing follows the adult regimen of 1 g once daily.[1] Intravenous administration involves infusing the reconstituted solution over 30 minutes, while intramuscular injections are given deeply into a large muscle mass such as the thigh, buttock, or deltoid muscle.[1] Reconstitution of the 1 g vial for intravenous use requires 10 mL of compatible diluent, such as water for injection, 0.9% sodium chloride injection, or bacteriostatic water for injection, followed by further dilution in 50 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride injection; the solution must be used within 6 hours if stored at room temperature.[1] For intramuscular use, the vial is reconstituted with 3.2 mL of 1% lidocaine hydrochloride injection without epinephrine, yielding approximately 1 g/5 mL, and administered immediately without further dilution.[1] Ertapenem should not be mixed with other medications or diluted in solutions containing dextrose.[1] Dose adjustments are necessary for patients with renal impairment; adults with creatinine clearance less than 30 mL/min/1.73 m² receive 500 mg once daily. Patients on hemodialysis should receive 500 mg once daily, with a supplemental 150 mg dose after dialysis if the regular dose was given within 6 hours before the dialysis session.[1] No dose adjustment is required for mild hepatic impairment, though monitoring is advised in elderly patients due to potential age-related declines in renal function.[1]

Safety Profile

Contraindications

Ertapenem is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to the drug, any of its components, other carbapenems, or beta-lactam antibiotics, as well as in those with a history of anaphylaxis or other severe hypersensitivity reactions to beta-lactams.[1] Additionally, for intramuscular administration, ertapenem is contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity to amide-type local anesthetics, such as lidocaine, which is used as a diluent in the formulation.[1] Relative contraindications include a history of penicillin allergy, where cross-reactivity risk exists due to structural similarities among beta-lactams, though studies indicate a low rate (less than 1%) for carbapenems like ertapenem in patients with confirmed IgE-mediated penicillin allergy; in such cases, skin testing and a graded challenge are recommended prior to use if ertapenem is essential.[1][6][7] Caution is advised in patients with central nervous system disorders, such as a history of seizures or brain lesions, as ertapenem has been associated with seizure occurrences (approximately 0.5% in clinical trials), potentially exacerbated by these conditions.[1] Concurrent use with valproic acid is relatively contraindicated without close monitoring, as ertapenem can significantly reduce valproic acid serum levels (by up to 72%), increasing the risk of breakthrough seizures.[1][8] In special populations, ertapenem should be avoided in neonates and infants under 3 months of age due to insufficient safety and efficacy data.[1] Caution is required in patients with renal impairment, particularly those with creatinine clearance ≤30 mL/min/1.73 m², where dose adjustment to 500 mg daily is necessary to prevent accumulation and associated risks like seizures; no adjustment is needed for mild impairment, but monitoring is recommended.[1]

Adverse Effects

Ertapenem therapy is associated with a range of adverse effects, most of which are mild to moderate in severity. In clinical trials involving adults, the most frequently reported adverse experiences occurring at an incidence of 5% or greater included diarrhea (10.3%), nausea (8.5%), infused vein complications such as phlebitis (7.1%), and headache (6.8%).[1] Other common effects (>1%) encompass vomiting (3.5%), injection site reactions including pain and erythema (up to 5%), and elevated liver enzymes such as ALT (8.8%) and AST (8.4%).[1] These gastrointestinal and local reactions typically resolve upon discontinuation of therapy. Serious adverse effects, though less common, require prompt attention. In clinical trials, seizures occurred in 0.5% of adult patients during treatment and follow-up; however, post-marketing and observational data report neurotoxicity, including seizures, encephalopathy, delirium, and hallucinations, in approximately 1% of treatment courses, with higher risk in patients with renal impairment or CNS disorders.[1][9] Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) can occur, ranging from mild to severe or fatal colitis, particularly in patients with risk factors for C. difficile overgrowth.[1] Anaphylaxis and other hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylactoid events, have been documented in post-marketing surveillance, underscoring the need for caution in patients with known beta-lactam allergies.[1] Superinfections, such as candidiasis, may develop due to disruption of normal flora, especially with prolonged use.[1] Laboratory abnormalities are frequently observed and warrant monitoring. Decreased hemoglobin occurs in approximately 4.9% of patients, while thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) is reported less commonly, though platelet count increases have been noted in 6.5%.[1] Mild, transient elevations in serum aminotransferase levels affect about 5% of recipients, with rare instances of clinically apparent cholestatic liver injury in post-marketing reports, typically resolving after drug withdrawal.[10] Post-marketing experiences have identified additional rare but severe effects, including encephalopathy, drug-induced liver injury, and severe cutaneous reactions such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP), and drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS).[1][11] Patients should be monitored for signs of these complications, particularly those with pre-existing hepatic or dermatologic conditions.

Overdose

Overdose with ertapenem is uncommon due to its once-daily dosing and parenteral administration, but when it occurs, it typically manifests with gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.[1] High doses may also lead to central nervous system effects, including seizures and agitation, particularly in patients with predisposing factors like renal impairment.[12] No significant cardiotoxicity has been reported in association with ertapenem overdose.[1] Management of ertapenem overdose involves immediate discontinuation of the drug and initiation of general supportive care, as no specific antidote exists.[1] Hemodialysis is recommended to enhance elimination, removing approximately 30% of the administered dose in patients with end-stage renal disease.[1] Close monitoring for seizures, electrolyte imbalances, and other complications is essential, with symptomatic treatment such as anticonvulsants provided if needed.[12] Clinical data indicate limited toxicity from elevated doses; in adult studies, inadvertent administration of up to 3 g per day did not produce clinically significant adverse effects.[13] Animal toxicology studies support a wide safety margin, with an LD50 exceeding 2 g/kg in mice following intravenous administration.[14]

Drug Interactions

Ertapenem exhibits several notable drug interactions, primarily pharmacokinetic in nature, that require careful consideration during therapy. A significant interaction occurs with valproic acid (and its derivatives like divalproex sodium), where co-administration can lead to a substantial reduction in valproic acid serum concentrations, typically ranging from 70% to 95%. This decrease is attributed to an unknown mechanism, possibly involving inhibition of valproic acid glucuronide hydrolysis or enhanced renal clearance, and it poses a risk of loss of seizure control in patients with epilepsy. Close monitoring of valproic acid levels is essential, with dose adjustments or alternative antibiotics recommended to mitigate breakthrough seizures.[1][15] Probenecid, when co-administered with ertapenem, inhibits active tubular secretion in the kidneys, resulting in a modest increase in ertapenem's elimination half-life by approximately 20% (from about 4.0 hours to 4.8 hours). Although this elevates ertapenem's plasma concentrations, the effect is generally not clinically significant and does not warrant routine dose adjustments; however, concurrent use is not recommended solely to prolong ertapenem's half-life.[1][16] Ertapenem does not demonstrate significant interactions with several commonly co-prescribed medications, including warfarin, where no alterations in anticoagulant effects have been observed; digoxin, as ertapenem does not inhibit P-glycoprotein-mediated transport; or oral contraceptives, with no evidence of reduced efficacy.[1][17]

Pharmacology

Mechanism of Action

Ertapenem is a β-lactam antibiotic belonging to the carbapenem class, which exerts its antibacterial effects by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) in susceptible bacteria. These PBPs are enzymes essential for the final stages of peptidoglycan synthesis in the bacterial cell wall. By forming a covalent bond with the active site serine residue of PBPs, ertapenem inhibits the transpeptidation step, preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan chains and thereby weakening the structural integrity of the cell wall.[18][3] This inhibition leads to bactericidal activity, as the accumulation of uncross-linked peptidoglycan precursors disrupts cell wall expansion during bacterial growth and division, ultimately triggering autolytic enzymes that degrade the existing cell wall and cause cell lysis and death. In Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, ertapenem demonstrates preferential binding to PBP-2, with additional affinity for PBPs 1a, 1b, and 3, which are critical for cell elongation and septation. In Gram-positive bacteria, including staphylococci, it targets multiple PBPs, notably PBP-1 (also known as PBP-1a and PBP-1b), along with PBPs 2 and 3, contributing to effective inhibition of cell wall synthesis across diverse pathogens.[19][13][20] Ertapenem exhibits stability against hydrolysis by many β-lactamases, including extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs), AmpC cephalosporinases, and penicillinases produced by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, allowing it to maintain activity against β-lactamase-producing strains. However, it is susceptible to inactivation by carbapenemases, a subset of β-lactamases that efficiently hydrolyze the carbapenem ring structure.[21][22]

Spectrum of Activity

Ertapenem exhibits a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity, primarily against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative aerobes as well as anaerobes, though it lacks efficacy against certain key pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).[23][3] This spectrum is attributed to its stability against many beta-lactamases, enabling coverage of beta-lactamase-producing strains.[24] Against Gram-positive bacteria, ertapenem is active against most streptococci, including Streptococcus pneumoniae and beta-hemolytic streptococci such as Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus agalactiae, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) typically ≤0.5 mg/L for susceptible isolates.[3][25] It shows moderate activity against methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), but is ineffective against MRSA and most coagulase-negative staphylococci.[23][3] Activity against enterococci is limited, particularly against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), where MIC90 values often exceed 16 mg/L.[26] For Gram-negative bacteria, ertapenem demonstrates strong potency against Enterobacteriaceae, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis, as well as Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis; MIC90 values for susceptible Enterobacteriaceae are generally ≤1 mg/L, with typical ranges of 0.06-4 mg/L.[25][3] However, it has no clinically relevant activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter species, or Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.[23][27] Ertapenem provides reliable coverage against anaerobes, including the Bacteroides fragilis group, Clostridium species, and Peptostreptococcus, with MIC50 values around 0.5 mg/L and MIC90 up to 4 mg/L for Bacteroides fragilis.[28][3] These values are somewhat higher than those for some other carbapenems but remain within therapeutic ranges for susceptible strains.[28]

Pharmacokinetics

Ertapenem is administered intravenously or intramuscularly, with nearly complete absorption following intramuscular injection. The bioavailability after a 1 g intramuscular dose is approximately 90-92%, and peak plasma concentrations are reached within about 2.3 hours.[1][29] Following a 1 g intravenous infusion over 30 minutes, the mean peak plasma concentration is approximately 155 μg/mL.[30] Ertapenem exhibits concentration-dependent plasma protein binding, primarily to albumin, ranging from 95% at concentrations below 100 μg/mL to about 85% at higher therapeutic levels around 300 μg/mL.[1] The volume of distribution at steady state is approximately 0.12 L/kg in healthy adults. It demonstrates good penetration into various tissues, including skin and soft tissues (with an AUC ratio of 0.61 in blister fluid relative to plasma), lung tissue, and gynecological sites relevant to pelvic infections.[1][31] However, penetration into cerebrospinal fluid is limited, typically achieving only 2-7% of plasma concentrations even in inflamed meninges.[32] Metabolism of ertapenem is minimal and primarily occurs in the kidneys via hydrolysis of the beta-lactam ring by dehydropeptidase I, yielding an inactive open-ring metabolite that accounts for about 37% of the dose. Hepatic metabolism is negligible, and ertapenem does not significantly interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes.[1][3] Elimination of ertapenem is predominantly renal, with approximately 80% of the dose recovered in urine (38% as unchanged drug and 37% as the metabolite) and 10% in feces. The total plasma clearance is about 1.8 L/hour (30 mL/min), while renal clearance of unchanged ertapenem is approximately 20 mL/min, reflecting partial tubular secretion and reabsorption. The elimination half-life in healthy adults is around 4 hours, supporting once-daily dosing.[1][30] In special populations, pharmacokinetics are altered primarily due to changes in renal function. Elderly patients exhibit reduced clearance, with unbound AUC increased by about 67% compared to younger adults, attributed to age-related declines in creatinine clearance. In renal impairment, half-life prolongs significantly—to about 13-14 hours in severe cases (creatinine clearance <10 mL/min)—necessitating dose adjustments to 500 mg daily for creatinine clearance ≤30 mL/min. Hepatic impairment has minimal impact given the drug's renal elimination pathway. In pediatric patients aged 3 months to 12 years, plasma clearance is approximately 2-fold higher than in adults, resulting in a half-life of about 2.5 hours and requiring twice-daily dosing of 15 mg/kg (maximum 1 g/day); in adolescents aged 13 to 17 years, the half-life is approximately 4 hours, similar to adults, supporting once-daily 1 g dosing.[1][33][1]

Comparison with Other Carbapenems

Ertapenem distinguishes itself from other carbapenems, such as imipenem, meropenem, and doripenem, primarily through its pharmacokinetic profile that supports once-daily administration. While imipenem, meropenem, and doripenem typically require dosing every 6-8 hours due to their shorter half-lives of approximately 1 hour, ertapenem's extended half-life of about 4 hours enables a single daily 1 g dose, facilitating greater convenience for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) and reducing the burden on healthcare resources.[34][35] This dosing advantage is particularly beneficial for treating community-acquired infections, where patient adherence and mobility are key considerations.[36] In terms of spectrum of activity, ertapenem exhibits a narrower profile compared to imipenem, meropenem, and doripenem, notably lacking reliable coverage against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species, which these other agents effectively target. However, ertapenem maintains potent activity against anaerobes, comparable to or exceeding that of imipenem and meropenem in some assessments, making it suitable for infections involving mixed aerobic-anaerobic flora without the risk of unnecessary broad-spectrum exposure that could promote resistance in non-susceptible pathogens.[37][38] This selective spectrum positions ertapenem as a preferred option for community-onset infections, such as intra-abdominal or skin and soft tissue infections, where Pseudomonas is unlikely, thereby preserving the utility of broader carbapenems for hospital-acquired cases.[39][40] Ertapenem's chemical stability offers a practical edge over imipenem, as it resists hydrolysis by renal dehydropeptidase-I (DHP-I), eliminating the need for co-administration with cilastatin, which is required to protect imipenem from renal degradation and potential nephrotoxicity. Clinically, this stability contributes to ertapenem's versatility, including approval for intramuscular (IM) administration—a route not routinely available for the other carbapenems, which are predominantly intravenous—enhancing its applicability in outpatient settings. Additionally, ertapenem carries a lower risk of seizures compared to imipenem, with meta-analyses indicating imipenem's odds ratio for seizures at 3.50 versus 1.12 for ertapenem when benchmarked against non-carbapenem antibiotics, allowing safer use in patients with seizure histories.[34][41][42] Regarding cost and availability, ertapenem's pricing is generally comparable to imipenem and slightly higher than meropenem, though its once-daily regimen often results in overall treatment savings through reduced administration needs and shorter hospital stays in OPAT scenarios. Its formulation supports broad availability in both IV and IM forms, reinforcing its role in resource-efficient management of non-Pseudomonas community infections.[43][44]

Resistance Considerations

Mechanisms of Resistance

Bacterial resistance to ertapenem primarily arises through enzymatic inactivation or non-enzymatic alterations that reduce drug accumulation or target affinity. The most significant enzymatic mechanism involves the production of carbapenemases, which are beta-lactamases capable of hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring of ertapenem. Key examples include Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC), New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM), and OXA-48-like enzymes, which confer high-level resistance in Enterobacteriaceae such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli.[45] Additionally, extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), often combined with the loss of outer membrane porins like OmpK35 or OmpK36 in Klebsiella species, can lead to ertapenem resistance by enhancing hydrolysis and limiting drug entry. Non-enzymatic mechanisms further contribute to resistance, particularly in Gram-negative bacteria. Efflux pumps, such as AcrAB-TolC in Enterobacteriaceae, actively expel ertapenem from the bacterial cell, reducing intracellular concentrations and synergizing with beta-lactamases for resistance.[46] Reduced outer membrane permeability due to porin mutations or downregulation is another common strategy, especially in non-carbapenemase producers, where it impedes ertapenem's access to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). In Gram-positive bacteria like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), resistance often stems from altered PBPs with low affinity for carbapenems, though ertapenem's activity against such strains is inherently limited.[47] The prevalence of ertapenem resistance has increased globally since 2020, driven largely by the dissemination of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CRE) in hospital settings. KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae is a dominant pathogen in nosocomial infections, though NDM-producing strains have risen significantly, reaching comparable incidence levels in the US by 2023, with rates exceeding 20% in certain high-burden settings within regions like the United States and Europe, while community-acquired resistance remains low at under 5%.[48] [49] This trend reflects clonal expansions and horizontal gene transfer of resistance plasmids.[50] Detection of ertapenem resistance mechanisms relies on phenotypic and genotypic assays. The modified Hodge test (MHT) serves as a simple phenotypic screen for carbapenemase production, identifying "cloverleaf" inhibition patterns with ertapenem disks on indicator strains, though it may yield false positives from non-carbapenemase mechanisms.[51] For precise identification, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targets carbapenemase genes like blaKPC, blaNDM, and blaOXA-48, enabling rapid genotyping in clinical isolates.[52]

Clinical Implications of Resistance

The emergence of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) significantly compromises the clinical utility of ertapenem, leading to high rates of treatment failure. In infections caused by CRE, inappropriate use of ertapenem or other carbapenems is associated with clinical failure rates ranging from 20% to 50%, depending on the infection site and patient comorbidities, with mortality often exceeding 40% in severe cases such as bloodstream infections.[53][54] As a result, ertapenem is recommended exclusively for confirmed susceptible isolates, with susceptibility testing required prior to initiation to avoid therapeutic failures and promote better outcomes.[55] Antimicrobial stewardship programs emphasize mandatory susceptibility testing and restrict empiric ertapenem use, particularly in high-resistance settings like intensive care units (ICUs) with endemic Pseudomonas aeruginosa, where ertapenem lacks coverage and resistance prevalence may exceed local thresholds. Guidelines advocate for de-escalation based on culture results and avoidance of broad-spectrum carbapenems in low-risk scenarios to preserve efficacy and curb resistance spread.[55][56] When resistance to ertapenem is confirmed in CRE infections, alternatives such as tigecycline or colistin are often employed, particularly for polymyxin-susceptible strains, with combination therapy preferred for severe cases to enhance efficacy and reduce mortality. These agents, while effective, carry risks of nephrotoxicity and limited tissue penetration, necessitating careful patient selection.[56][57] Global trends indicate rising CRE prevalence, with carbapenem resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae reaching a population-weighted mean of 13.3% across EU/EEA countries in 2023, up from 10.4% in 2019, and around 2-3% among Enterobacterales in US hospitals during the same year.[58][59] These increases limit ertapenem's role in outpatient parenteral therapy, where community susceptibility patterns often show higher vulnerability to resistance emergence, prompting reliance on oral alternatives or monitoring programs. As of 2025, notable developments include a sustained surge in NDM-producing CRE in the US, with incidence remaining high into 2024, and the increasing spread of hypervirulent carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CR-hvKp) in the EU/EEA, which may further complicate treatment due to enhanced virulence.[60][61]

History and Development

Discovery and Approval

Ertapenem, a synthetic carbapenem antibiotic, was originally discovered by researchers at Zeneca Pharmaceuticals (now AstraZeneca) in the early 1990s. It was designed as a structural analog of thienamycin, the prototypical carbapenem isolated from Streptomyces cattleya, with key modifications including a 1-β-methyl substituent at the C-2 position and a meta-(1-hydroxyethyl) pyrrolidine side chain at C-3. These alterations improved chemical stability against hydrolysis by renal dehydropeptidase-I and extended the plasma half-life to approximately 4 hours, enabling once-daily dosing—a significant advancement over earlier carbapenems like imipenem that required more frequent administration. Zeneca licensed the compound to Merck & Co. in 1995 for clinical development and commercialization, recognizing its potential as a broad-spectrum agent for serious infections.[62][63] Merck advanced ertapenem through preclinical and clinical evaluation, culminating in pivotal Phase III trials conducted from 2000 to 2001. These multicenter, randomized, double-blind studies enrolled over 1,700 adults and assessed ertapenem's efficacy and safety. In one trial involving complicated intra-abdominal infections (such as appendicitis and peritonitis), ertapenem (1 g IV once daily) demonstrated non-inferiority to piperacillin-tazobactam (3.375 g IV every 6 hours), with clinical success rates of 83.6% versus 80.4% in microbiologically evaluable patients at 4-6 weeks post-therapy. A parallel trial for complicated skin and skin structure infections (including cellulitis, abscesses, and wound infections) similarly showed non-inferiority, with success rates of 83.9% for ertapenem compared to 85.3% for piperacillin-tazobactam at 10-21 days post-therapy. Additional Phase III data supported its use in acute pelvic infections and community-acquired pneumonia, establishing ertapenem's role in empiric therapy for polymicrobial infections.[64][65] Regulatory approval followed swiftly. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved ertapenem on November 21, 2001, under the brand name Invanz (ertapenem sodium), initially for intravenous or intramuscular treatment of adults with complicated intra-abdominal infections, skin and skin structure infections, acute pelvic infections, and community-acquired pneumonia caused by susceptible pathogens. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) authorized it in April 2002 for similar indications in the European Union, with initial labeling restricted to patients aged 18 years and older. Formulated as a lyophilized powder in 1 g single-dose vials, Invanz requires reconstitution for IV infusion over 30 minutes or IM injection, offering flexibility in both hospital and outpatient settings.[2][66][64]

Recent Developments

In recent years, research has explored expanded indications for ertapenem beyond its traditional uses. A 2022 randomized non-inferiority trial published in The Lancet Infectious Diseases demonstrated that a single 1 g intramuscular dose of ertapenem achieved microbiological cure rates of 99% (86/87) in the per-protocol analysis for anogenital gonorrhea caused by ceftriaxone-susceptible Neisseria gonorrhoeae, non-inferior to 500 mg ceftriaxone (100%, 93/93).[67] Surveillance data from 2023 to 2025 highlight rising concerns over carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) prevalence, influencing stewardship practices for ertapenem. The European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (EARS-Net) reported a population-weighted mean carbapenem resistance of 13.3% among invasive Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates in EU/EEA countries in 2023, with significant increases in bloodstream infection incidence since 2019; similarly, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) data indicated a >460% surge in New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase-producing CRE infections from 2019 to 2023, prompting updated guidelines from bodies like the Infectious Diseases Society of America to restrict ertapenem use to confirmed susceptible infections and promote de-escalation to narrower agents.[68][60][55] Ongoing research aims to address ertapenem's limitations, particularly its intravenous/intramuscular administration. Studies have evaluated ertapenem combinations with anti-staphylococcal β-lactams, such as cefazolin, showing synergistic activity against methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infections in refractory cases.[69] As of 2025, research into alternative formulations, including subcutaneous delivery, continues to explore options for improved outpatient use.[70] Regulatory advancements include a 2024 update to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeling for ertapenem, incorporating pediatric indications (ages 3 months and older) for complicated skin and skin structure infections, including diabetic foot infections without osteomyelitis, supported by 2023 pharmacokinetic and safety data from post-marketing surveillance.[71]

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