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Eucryphia lucida
Eucryphia lucida
Eucryphia lucida
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Leatherwood
Flower, Montezuma Falls, Tasmania, Australia, 5 Jan 2012 by John Tann
Young, growing sapling in full flower and growth (source of above flower)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Oxalidales
Family: Cunoniaceae
Genus: Eucryphia
Species:
E. lucida
Binomial name
Eucryphia lucida
Synonyms[1]
  • Carpodontos lucida Labill.
  • Eucryphia billardierei Spach
Opening ripe fruits. Overland Track, Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park, Tasmania, Australia, 17 April 2013 by Doug Beckers

Eucryphia lucida, the leatherwood, is a species of tree or large shrub endemic to forests of western Tasmania, Australia. An attractive plant used in both horticulture and apiculture, it was promoted by the Tasmanian Branch of the then SGAP as an alternative to the Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) for Tasmania's floral emblem. It was described as E. billiarderi at one stage, this now being a synonym.

Description

[edit]

Ranging from 2–10 m (6.6–32.8 ft) in height, it can sometimes grow to 25 m (82 ft) in favourable conditions. The small dark green glossy leaves are elliptical in shape and 2–4 cm (1–1.5 in) long. Appearing in spring and summer, the 2.5–4 cm (1–1.5 in) diameter white flowers have four petals and resemble small single roses and have a strong fragrance, especially on warmer days. The flower parts are often covered with a sticky sap. Flowering is followed by leathery capsules which mature in autumn.

The species was first described by Jacques Labillardière.[2]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

It is widespread and common in moister forests in Tasmania, occurring mainly across the western parts of the state, from the northwest in such places as the Tarkine and through the South West Wilderness. It grows as an understorey plant and prefers wetter climates of 1500–2500 mm annual rainfall.

Fossil leaves from Early Pleistocene sediments at Regatta Point in Western Tasmania show similarities to Eucryphia lucida and suggest a close relationship.[3]

Cultivation

[edit]

Leatherwood is easily propagated by seed or cutting and makes an attractive, fast-growing garden plant. It thrives in well-drained soil in a position with some shelter and extra moisture. It does require regular pruning to keep a neat shape. It is also used by Tasmanian beekeepers in the making of leatherwood honey, a noted monofloral honey that has been recognised by the international Slow Food movement in its Ark of Taste. For many years, the Tasmanian Beekeepers' Association has had to lobby the Tasmanian government to ensure continued access to this resource, and to protect it from logging.

Much of the leatherwood is difficult to access, growing deep within the forests of Tasmania's wild west coast. Beekeepers from Tasmania camp in the forest during the leatherwood harvest, which occurs between January and March.

Cultivars

[edit]
  • E. 'Ballerina' (ACRA reference: ACC469) is a larger flowered form with pink flowers rimmed with red, collected from a plant in western Tasmania in 1986. It is a paler pink than 'Pink Cloud'.
  • E. 'Dumpling' is a compact white-flowered form to 1 metre high developed in the UK by Suttons of Devon.
  • E. 'Gillanders' Rose' is a pink flowered form.
  • E. 'Gilt Edge' has trifoliate leaves with a creamy yellow margin on the topside. It produces white flowers that open flat.
  • E. 'Gold Rim'
  • E. 'Leatherwood Cream' (ACRA reference: ACC006) is another selection, this time with variegated cream-edged leaves.
  • E. 'Pink Cloud' (ACRA reference: ACC368) is a pink-flowered cultivar collected from plants growing near Smithton in North-West Tasmania in 1984 by Ken Gillanders.
  • E. 'Spring Glow' is a variegated Eucryphia with eye-catching cream-edged evergreen leaves and attractive white flowers.

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eucryphia lucida

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
, commonly known as leatherwood, is an evergreen tree or large shrub in the family Eucryphiaceae, endemic to the cool temperate rainforests of Tasmania, Australia. It typically grows to heights of 2 to 30 meters, with a spreading crown, in habitats characterized by high annual rainfall exceeding 1500 millimeters and low fire frequency, often associating with species such as Nothofagus cunninghamii and Atherosperma moschatum. The leaves are opposite, leathery, narrowly oblong to elliptic, 3.5 to 7.5 centimeters long, glossy dark green above and glaucous beneath, with young growth often resinous. In late summer, it produces solitary, sweetly scented white flowers up to 5 centimeters across, featuring four petals and numerous stamens, which serve as a primary nectar source for bees producing the distinctive Tasmanian leatherwood honey. The fruit is a woody capsule containing winged seeds, maturing after about 12 months. Abundant in its native range and not currently evaluated as threatened, E. lucida plays a key ecological role in rainforest regeneration and is valued ornamentally in cultivation for its attractive foliage and blooms, though it requires moist, well-drained soils and protection from intense sun and wind.

Taxonomy

Etymology and nomenclature

The binomial name Eucryphia lucida was validly published by French botanist Henri Ernest Baillon in 1871, with the basionym Carpodontos lucida originally described by Jacques Julien Houtou de Labillardière from specimens collected in Tasmania during 1791–1793 and published in 1805. A synonym is Eucryphia billardierei Spach (1834), proposed based on misidentified material but later reduced to synonymy under E. lucida. No infraspecific taxa are currently recognized. The name Eucryphia, established by Spanish botanist Antonio José de Cavanilles in 1797 for species, combines prefix eu- (meaning well or true) with kryphios (hidden, concealed, or covered), referring to the sepals united into a cap-like structure that covers and protects the flower buds prior to . The specific epithet lucida, from Latin lucidus (shining or bright), denotes the species' distinctive glossy, foliage, which retains a lustrous appearance year-round. Common names include leatherwood, reflecting the plant's tough, fibrous bark historically processed for its leather-like durability in cordage or tanning applications, and pinkwood, alluding to the pale pinkish hue of its timber.

Classification and phylogeny

_Eucryphia lucida is classified in the Eucryphia, Cunoniaceae, order Oxalidales, clade core , class Magnoliopsida, phylum Tracheophyta, kingdom Plantae. The accepted name is Eucryphia lucida (Labill.) Baill., published in 1871, with the Carpodontos lucida Labill. from 1800; synonyms include Eucryphia billardierei Spach (1836, illegitimate) and orthographic variant E. billardieri Benth. (1864). Historically treated in the segregate Eucryphiaceae, it is now included in Cunoniaceae following molecular evidence integrating morphological traits like vessel elements and structure. Phylogenetic analyses place Eucryphia within the core , where it forms a monophyletic group sister to tribes Caldcluvieae, Codieae, Cunonieae, and Geissoieae, supported by posterior probabilities of 1 in targeted nuclear phylogenomics using 353 low-copy genes across all 27 genera. The genus comprises seven species, with Australian taxa (E. lucida, E. milliganii) forming a sister to South American relatives, reflecting a Gondwanan origin but with disjunct distributions explained by long-distance dispersal rather than vicariance; divergence from Oceanian lineages occurred around 14.5 million years ago. Earlier studies positioned Eucryphia in a basal grade or unplaced core based on rbcL and morphological data, but recent phylogenomics refine its relationships, confirming as ancestral for Cunoniaceae with subsequent dispersals to and other regions. Fossils of Eucryphia-like macroremains from sediments in and support its evolutionary persistence in southern temperate rainforests.

Description

Morphology

Eucryphia lucida is an or large reaching heights of 2–30 m in its native , typically forming a compact crown with a columnar . The bark is smooth, dark green to grey-brown, often covered with lichens. Young shoots are , with buds and young leaves exuding a sticky, gummy . Leaves are simple, opposite, and leathery, measuring 2–7.5 cm long by 1–1.5 cm wide, with shapes ranging from narrowly oblong to elliptic or elliptical-lanceolate; they feature a rounded apex, entire margins (occasionally ), glossy dark green upper surfaces, and or white undersides, borne on short petioles of about 3 mm. Flowers are solitary and axillary, pendulous on pubescent stalks up to 1.5 cm long, subtended by two bracts, and measure 2.5–5 cm across; they are white (rarely pink), sweetly scented, with four petals, numerous showy stamens, and sepals initially joined at the apex to form an operculum that sheds as the petals expand, resembling small single roses. Fruits are cylindrical, dry, woody or leathery capsules approximately 1.5 cm long by 6 mm wide, with pedicels 1.5–2.5 times the fruit length; they dehisce into boat-shaped valves tipped by persistent styles, releasing numerous coppery-winged seeds about 12 months after flowering.

Growth habit

Eucryphia lucida grows as an or large , exhibiting a columnar upright with a compact crown composed of glossy green foliage. In its native Tasmanian , it typically reaches 10-15 meters in height, though exceptional specimens attain up to 30 meters under favorable conditions such as moist understoreys. The species displays variability in stature, commonly ranging from 2-10 meters, and can form dense thickets through prolific establishment, reflecting a relatively rapid growth rate among native trees. Branching is upright and dense, supporting a medium growth rate that enables establishment in sheltered, wet environments with annual rainfall exceeding 1500 mm. In cultivation, pruning after flowering at 1-2 meters height promotes a shapely, form rather than allowing full development.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Eucryphia lucida is endemic to , the island state of , with no native occurrences outside this region. The species occupies a range spanning approximately the western, central, and southern portions of the state, primarily in areas characterized by high annual rainfall exceeding 1,500 mm and low fire frequency. Within Tasmania, populations are most abundant in cool temperate rainforests and adjacent moss forests, particularly along the wetter western slopes and extending eastward into transitional zones. It also appears in sub-alpine shrubberies and riparian zones in multiple areas, including those in the west (e.g., West Coast), (e.g., Central Highlands), and (e.g., Huon ). The total distribution covers diverse elevations from to sub-alpine heights, though it favors sheltered, humid microhabitats that support its growth as a shrub or small tree. Approximately 37% of its range falls within the , underscoring its concentration in protected, undisturbed forests.

Environmental requirements

Eucryphia lucida is adapted to cool temperate climates with high annual rainfall of 1,500–2,500 mm, favoring the mild, wet conditions of Tasmania's western rainforests. These environments support its growth in moss forests and understorey settings, where consistent moisture and moderate temperatures prevail. The requires well-drained yet persistently moist loamy soils, ideally lime-free with a of 5.0–7.0 and enriched with , exhibiting tolerance for low to intermediate fertility levels. It occurs frequently along river banks, reflecting its intolerance to root dryness during active growth, and thrives in substrates that retain moisture without waterlogging. Light conditions suit an open, sheltered position, with the base preferring shade while the canopy benefits from ample exposure to promote flowering; full sun is tolerated only if accompanied by cool, moist soil. Shelter from strong winds is essential, aligning with its native understorey role amid associates like and Atherosperma moschatum. Elevation ranges from 30 m to 800 m, encompassing lowland rainforests to sub-alpine shrubberies, where it regenerates in both intact and disturbed sites. Frost tolerance extends to -5 °C in , though young growth is sensitive below -1 °C.

Ecology

Reproduction and pollination

flowers are hermaphroditic, solitary, and protandrous, with each bloom lasting 12–13 days: an initial male phase of 6–7 days for presentation followed by a female phase of about 6 days of stigma receptivity. Flowers measure 2.5–5 cm across, are sweetly scented, and produce continuously from nightfall, with sugar concentrations around 20% that can concentrate above 60% on warm days; release accelerates with temperatures exceeding 10 °C. This attracts 2–25 visits per flower daily, promoting cross- despite partial self-fertility, where bagged (self-pollinated) flowers yield 34% fruit set and 16% set versus 80% and 36% in open-pollinated ones. Primary pollinators are native , particularly large Diptera (flies from 16 families) and Coleoptera (beetles from 6 families), which effectively transfer ; smaller hymenopterans, lepidopterans, and introduced honeybees (Apis mellifera) contribute but are secondary. Hive honeybees near apiaries rapidly deplete , enforcing full dichogamy (phase separation) and elevating fruit set slightly, yet seed set per fruit and stigma loads remain comparable to apiary-absent sites, indicating no overall reproductive detriment from honeybees. The is not -limited under natural conditions, with open flowers receiving ~1,700 grains per stigma. Reproduction occurs via seeds within woody capsules that mature from February to April, enabling propagation; germination is typically reliable when sown fresh in moist, drained media after cool, dry storage. Mast seeding may synchronize with climatic cues, though specific triggers for E. lucida remain understudied.

Interactions with fauna

Eucryphia lucida primarily interacts with through , with flowers attracting a diverse array of native including large Diptera (flies), small Diptera, Coleoptera (beetles), , and . Large Diptera represent the most common native visitors, comprising 67.5–73.7% of non-honeybee floral visits across study sites. These facilitate transfer, though the species exhibits partial self-fertility, with autogamous yielding 34% set in controlled experiments. Introduced honeybees (Apis mellifera), both feral and managed from apiaries, are frequent visitors, comprising 39.3% of total observed floral visits in monitored populations. Near commercial apiaries, honeybee visitation rates increase significantly (0.12 visits per flower per 10 minutes versus 0.04 at control sites; P = 0.0001), leading to faster removal (<1% anthers retaining by day 7 versus 10.4% at controls) and depletion (1.56 mg sugar consumed per flower per day versus 0.21 mg; P = 0.047). While native visitation rates show no significant decline (0.11 versus 0.14 visits per flower per 10 minutes; P = 0.67), high honeybee abundance may indirectly affect native pollinators through resource competition, though variability in native populations obscures definitive patterns. set is marginally higher near apiaries (74.3% versus 46.6%; P = 0.07), potentially due to reduced from honeybee-mediated , with no differences in seed set (34.9% versus 30.2%; P = 0.24). Bird visits are rare, with occasional observations of species such as the crescent honeyeater (Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus) attracted to low insect activity on flowers. Evidence for herbivory or is limited, with no specific documented as significant consumers of foliage, twigs, or seeds in available studies; seedling establishment may indirectly benefit from soil bioturbation by larger mammals, enhancing survival on fallen logs over exposed soil. Seed dispersal appears predominantly abiotic, via water in riparian habitats, with uncertain contributions from animals.

Human uses

Horticulture and cultivation

Eucryphia lucida, commonly known as leatherwood, is cultivated primarily as an ornamental valued for its glossy foliage and profuse, fragrant white flowers produced in summer. It thrives in temperate climates with cool, moist conditions, mirroring its native Tasmanian habitat, and performs best in regions with annual rainfall exceeding 1500 mm and protection from hot summer sun and drying winds. The species prefers moist but well-drained soils of low to intermediate fertility, tolerating clay, , or with acidic to neutral (4.0–7.0), though it resents root dryness and chalky conditions. In suitable sites, it can reach 8–12 meters in height with a spread of 2.5–4 meters over 20–50 years, forming a compact crown suitable for planting or as a specimen . Propagation is straightforward, with sown in late winter under yielding viable , though may be slow; cuttings from soft new growth of young root readily when treated with and maintained in moist, warm conditions. Transplants are best handled when are 1–2 meters tall to minimize disturbance, and establishment requires consistent moisture without waterlogging. To promote flowering, provide ample light while shading , as the demands cool, humid even in partial sun. Cultivars such as 'Leatherwood Cream', featuring variegated foliage, are available for interest but share the ' cultural needs. In cultivation, leatherwood exhibits moderate growth rates and low maintenance once established, though it may suffer in hot, dry summers or exposed sites without supplemental watering. It is hardy in mild, moist areas like parts of the and southeastern but requires shelter from cold winds and frost in less favorable zones. No major pests or diseases are widely reported, emphasizing its suitability for naturalistic or gardens where it supports through nectar-rich blooms.

Apiculture and honey production

, known as leatherwood, is the principal source for Tasmanian leatherwood , a monofloral variety produced exclusively from its flowers in the island's temperate rainforests. Commercial apiarists relocate to remote western forests during the flowering period, spanning late to March, to capitalize on the tree's abundant secretion. This practice, sustained by family-operated beekeepers for generations, leverages the ' prevalence in undisturbed habitats to yield a product central to Tasmania's apiculture industry. Leatherwood honey constitutes approximately 70% of Tasmania's total honey output, underscoring its economic significance, though yields can fluctuate due to environmental factors such as bushfires; for instance, in the 2018–2019 season, it accounted for 174 tonnes, or 43% of production. The 's physico-chemical profile includes a slightly consistency that crystallizes uniformly into a smooth, creamy texture with an ochre-yellow hue, attributed to the nectar's composition from E. lucida. Its flavor is characterized by bold, complex notes blending floral aromas with spicy and piquant undertones, distinguishing it from other honeys. Analytical studies reveal elevated activity in leatherwood , reaching up to 7.25 μmol/g equivalents, linked to such as those identified in its profile, including 28 phenolics with 14 potential markers. Production methods emphasize minimal to retain natural enzymes and bioactive properties, aligning with traditional apicultural techniques that prioritize the 's unadulterated floral essence. This focus on authenticity supports its recognition as a premium, geographically specific product, though challenges persist due to potential adulteration risks in commercial markets.

Other applications

The wood of Eucryphia lucida possesses an even, fine grain that renders it suitable for specialized . It is commercially harvested for furniture manufacturing, veneer production, , and turning, with applications extending to handles and small crafted items. Historically, the timber has also been cut for tool handles and railway sleepers, leveraging its density and workability. The species' tough bark, which inspired its common name "leatherwood," was traditionally employed by Tasmanian Aboriginal people for creating bindings and cordage. Limited ethnobotanical records indicate local medicinal applications, including and styptic uses, though these remain undocumented in peer-reviewed pharmacological studies and are based on historical wild harvesting practices. No significant edible or industrial chemical extractions beyond for have been verified.

Conservation

Status and threats

Eucryphia lucida is classified as Least Concern on the , indicating a low risk of due to its widespread occurrence and stable populations in Tasmanian rainforests. It is not listed as threatened under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995, reflecting its abundance in wet forest habitats with high rainfall and low natural fire frequency. Despite this status, habitat loss from commercial in native forests remains a key threat, particularly as E. lucida occurs as an understorey species in logged rainforests. In 2020, Sustainable Timber Tasmania stated that fully protecting leatherwood from ongoing logging operations was unlikely, despite agreements with apiarists to safeguard key nectar sites. Climate-driven changes, including intensified bushfires and prolonged dry spells, further endanger stands by damaging mature trees and disrupting flowering cycles essential for and honey production. For instance, bushfires in western in February 2025 threatened leatherwood-dependent bee hives and forest integrity, while a 2022 dry period in the region reduced blossom yields. Introduced European honeybees (Apis mellifera) pose pollination risks by dominating floral resources and potentially reducing visitation by native insects, as evidenced by studies comparing apiary sites to controls where hive bees altered leatherwood reproductive outcomes. Increased fire frequency under climate projections could also shift rainforest dynamics, favoring fire-tolerant species over fire-sensitive E. lucida, though its regeneration relies on infrequent disturbances. Overall, while populations persist in protected areas, cumulative pressures from forestry and environmental shifts necessitate monitoring to maintain viability.

Management and protection

Eucryphia lucida habitats are largely protected within Tasmania's formal reserve system, encompassing national parks, state reserves, and the , which safeguards significant portions of the species' preferred cool environments in western . Approximately 80 percent of old-growth forests, where E. lucida is prevalent as an understorey or co-dominant tree, fall under reservation, exceeding the 15 percent threshold recommended for adequate conservation of native forest communities. In areas allocated for timber production, such as state forests managed by Sustainable Timber Tasmania, rainforest stands—including those featuring E. lucida (leatherwood)—are not subject to harvesting, with operations confined to eucalypt-dominated overstorey to preserve the fire-sensitive understorey. The 2005 Tasmanian Community Forest Agreement facilitated this by expanding reservations by 104,396 hectares of leatherwood-bearing forest and mandating a transition to variable retention over clearfelling in at least 80 percent of old-growth harvest areas by 2010, projecting a reduction in accessible E. lucida loss from 10 percent to 6 percent over 90 years while sustaining resources for apiculture. Management also addresses apiary values, with planning guidelines designating high leatherwood density sites as priorities for retention during forestry activities to support sustainable monofloral honey production, alongside broader protections against threats like , which can displace rainforest species in transitional rainfall zones.

References

  1. https://pft.tas.gov.au/tree-species/leatherwood
  2. https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/eucryphia/eucryphia-lucida/
  3. https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2005/eucryphia-lucida.html
  4. https://anpsa.org.au/plant_profiles/eucryphia-lucida/
  5. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:337097-1
  6. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/6938/eucryphia-lucida/details
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8361763/
  8. https://flora.tmag.tas.gov.au/pdf/Cunoniaceae_2019_1.pdf
  9. https://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Eucryphia+lucida
  10. http://understorey-network.org.au/family-index.html?species=Eucryphia%2520lucida
  11. https://temperate.theferns.info/plant/Eucryphia+lucida
  12. https://figshare.utas.edu.au/articles/thesis/Pollination_ecology_of_Tasmanian_leatherwood_Eucryphia_lucida_Eucryphiaceae_Labill_and_the_impacts_of_hive_honeybees/23228651
  13. https://anpsa.org.au/APOL34/jun04-3.html
  14. https://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Eucryphia%2Blucida
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229494324_Impacts_of_hive_honeybees_on_Tasmanian_leatherwood_Eucryphia_lucida_Labill_Eucryphiaceae
  16. https://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/BT22043
  17. https://downloads.regulations.gov/FWS-R3-ES-2015-0112-0017/attachment_3.pdf
  18. https://figshare.utas.edu.au/articles/journal_contribution/The_Role_of_Fallen_Logs_in_the_Regeneration_of_Tree_Species_in_Tasmanian_Mixed_Forest/22837238/1/files/40591955.pdf
  19. https://www.facebook.com/Plantsoftasmanianurseryold/posts/eucryphia-lucida-leatherwood-cream-famous-for-the-honey-produced-from-its-flower/887008076256129/
  20. https://temperate.theferns.info/plant/Eucryphia%2Blucida
  21. https://hortflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/taxon/ad9d1ff0-5340-11e7-b82b-005056b0018f
  22. https://livebeekeeping.com/honey/leatherwood-honey/
  23. https://www.apimondia.org/australia_leatherwood.html
  24. https://www.tasmanianbeekeepers.org.au/leatherwood-honey/
  25. https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/leatherwood-honey/
  26. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12167094/
  27. https://leatherwoodhoney.org.au/
  28. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814625009744
  29. https://naturallife.com.au/blogs/news/the-ultimate-guide-to-leatherwood-honey-tasmania-s-liquid-gold
  30. https://www.woodsolutions.com.au/wood-species/hardwood/leatherwood
  31. https://www.whitehousenursery.com.au/trees-and-shrubs/display/467-eucryphia-lucida-tasmanian-leatherwood
  32. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Eucryphia%2Blucida
  33. https://practicalplants.org/wiki/eucryphia_lucida/
  34. https://wilderness.org.au/news-events/govt-logging-agency-intends-to-keep-logging-leatherwood
  35. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-02-12/threat-to-bee-hives-bushfire-west-coast-tasmania/104927438
  36. https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2022-02-07/beekeepers-grapple-with-western-dry-spell/100799136
  37. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/tas-state-party-report-2008.pdf
  38. https://www.stategrowth.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/525532/Sustainability_Indicators.pdf
  39. https://permits.sttas.com.au/forest-operations-management/understanding-our-forests/rainforest
  40. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242317529_Changes_to_oldgrowth_forest_management_in_Tasmanian_State_forests_and_the_implications_for_the_leatherwood_nectar_resource
  41. https://sttwebdata.blob.core.windows.net/stt-prod/assets/STT_Planning_Guidelines_for_Apiary_Values_May_2019_signed_4dc4d32970.pdf
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