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European ratsnake
European ratsnake
European ratsnake
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European ratsnake
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Genus: Zamenis
Species:
Z. situla
Binomial name
Zamenis situla
Synonyms[2][3]
  • Coluber situla Linnaeus, 1758
  • Coluber leopardinus Bonaparte, 1834
  • Callopeltis leopardinus (Bonaparte, 1834)
  • Natrix leopardina (Bonaparte, 1834)
  • Ablabes quadrilineata Duméril & Bibron, 1854
  • Coronella quadrilineata (Duméril & Bibron, 1854)
  • Coluber leopardinus (Bonaparte, 1834)
  • Elaphe situla (Linnaeus, 1758)

The European ratsnake (Zamenis situla), or the leopard snake, is a species of nonvenomous snake belonging to the family Colubridae. This species is found in southeastern Europe and western Anatolia.

Taxonomy

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The European ratsnake was first formally described as Coluber Situla by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758. Linnaeus gave the type locality as Egypt but this species does noy occur there.[4] This species is classified in the genus Zamenis which belongs to the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae.[3]

Geographic range

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The European ratsnake is found in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, North Macedonia, Malta, Montenegro, Turkey, Ukraine, and possibly Cyprus.[1]

Description

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The European ratsnake is gray or tan with a dorsal series of reddish or brown transverse blotches, which have black borders. On each side is a series of smaller black spots, alternating with the dorsal blotches. There is a Y-shaped dark marking on the occiput and nape, a crescent-shaped black band from eye to eye across the prefrontals, and a black band from the postoculars diagonally to the corner of the mouth. The belly is white, checkered with black, or almost entirely back. The dorsal scales are in 25 or 27 rows, and are smooth. Adults may attain 90 cm (35+1⁄2 in) in total length, with a tail of 16 cm (6+1⁄4 in).[2]

Habitat

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The European ratsnake is found in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, pastureland, plantations, and rural gardens. It can be found up to 1,600 m (5,200 ft) above sea level.[1] This species is attracted to anthropogenic habitats, including barns, gardens and even rubbish dumps, most likely attracted by rodents, so much that in Greek the leopard snake is known as the "house snake".[5]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

European ratsnake

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The (Zamenis longissimus), also known as the European ratsnake, is a non-venomous colubrid native to central and , recognized for its slender, elongated body and exceptional climbing abilities. Adults typically reach lengths of 110–160 cm, though some individuals exceed 2 m, with a smooth-scaled, cylindrical form featuring a small head, round pupils, and a coloration varying from olive-green or brownish to uniform grey, often accented by a subtle metallic sheen and pale undertones on the belly. Juveniles exhibit more contrasting patterns, including dark stripes and spots on a greenish-yellow background, which fade with age. This snake is oviparous, laying 5–11 eggs in warm, moist sites during summer, with hatchlings emerging after 6–10 weeks at around 20 cm in length. Widespread across much of , the European ratsnake's range extends from northwestern and through central and eastern regions—including , , , the Balkans, and into northwestern and the Caucasus—though populations become fragmented and isolated toward the northern limits in . It favors edge habitats such as woodland borders, hedgerows, riverbanks, and sunny clearings with ample cover, often utilizing trees and shrubs for and shelter; in urban-adjacent areas, it may exploit ruins or parks. As a diurnal and primarily arboreal predator, it employs to subdue prey, with a diet dominated by small like mice and rats, supplemented by birds, eggs, lizards, and occasionally amphibians or insects. Color polymorphism adds notable diversity to the species, including melanistic () forms like the subgrisea morph, characterized by dark grey to dorsal scales with flecks and a venter, which appears more frequently in Balkan populations and results from a recessive genetic trait. is attained at 4–6 years, with males slightly larger than females, and the species hibernates communally in winter burrows from mid-autumn to early spring. Classified as Least Concern on the due to its broad distribution, the European ratsnake faces localized threats from , road mortality, and , particularly in northern populations.

Taxonomy and Systematics

Taxonomic Classification

The European ratsnake, scientifically known as Zamenis situla (Linnaeus, 1758), belongs to the class Reptilia within the phylum Chordata and kingdom Animalia. It is classified under the order , which encompasses all scaled reptiles including and snakes. As a member of the family , the largest family of snakes comprising over 2,000 species, Z. situla is placed in the subfamily Colubrinae. This subfamily includes many nonvenomous or mildly ous snakes characterized by advanced morphological features such as a single row of teeth on the and the absence of specialized delivery systems in most taxa. Specifically, Z. situla exhibits aglyphous , featuring solid, ungrooved teeth without fangs adapted for venom conduction, aligning with its nonvenomous nature as a constrictor. The genus Zamenis encompasses several Old World ratsnake , including Z. longissimus (the ) and Z. hohenackeri, all sharing a monophyletic origin based on molecular evidence. Phylogenetic analyses have positioned Zamenis within the Colubrinae, with Z. situla forming a with other western Palearctic ratsnakes, distinct from Asian species to which it was formerly assigned. This reclassification, supported by studies, highlights the genus's evolutionary ties to Eurasian colubrids adapted to temperate habitats.

Etymology and Synonyms

The European ratsnake was first formally described by in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758, under the binomial name Coluber . The genus name Zamenis derives from the Greek word zamenēs, meaning "angry," "irritable," or "fierce," reflecting a historical of the snakes' or appearance. The specific epithet is Latin for "bucket" or "urn" (as in a vessel for drawing water), though the reason for this choice in naming remains unexplained in Linnaean descriptions. Over time, the species has undergone several taxonomic reclassifications, leading to historical synonyms such as situla (used when placed in the genus ) and Coluber leopardinus (proposed by Bonaparte in 1834). Common names for the species include European ratsnake and snake, the latter alluding to its distinctive spotted pattern resembling that of a . Regional variants exist, such as crvenkrpica (meaning "red-spotted") in Croatian and spitofido (meaning "house snake") in Greek, reflecting local observations of its coloration and habitat associations.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) is native to central and southern Europe, with a distribution extending from northwestern Spain and France eastward through Italy, southern Switzerland, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Balkans—including Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, and Greece (including Corfu)—to northwestern Turkey, the Caucasus region (Georgia, Azerbaijan), northwestern Iran, southern Russia (south to the Kuban River), southwestern Ukraine, and southern Moldova. Populations are fragmented and isolated in northern central Europe, such as in Germany and Poland. Introduced populations exist in the , with established colonies in , , and , , likely originating from pet trade releases in the . The species occurs from up to approximately 2,000 , primarily in lowland to montane terrains. Classified as Least Concern on the due to its extensive range, the distribution of Z. longissimus has remained relatively stable as of recent assessments, though northern relict populations show localized declines. Range limits are influenced by climatic factors, favoring temperate to subtropical conditions; ongoing may shift northern boundaries northward but poses risks to isolated populations through altered and extremes.

Habitat Preferences

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) inhabits warm, moderately humid environments across a variety of forested and edge habitats, including woodlands, broadleaf s along river valleys and beds (avoiding marshes), steppes, shrublands, hedgerows, and sunny clearings with ample cover. It shows a preference for hilly or rocky areas with proper insolation, often utilizing trees, bushes, and structures for climbing due to its semi-arboreal nature. In human-modified landscapes, it frequents ruins, old walls, stone walls, rural gardens, derelict buildings, and parks adjacent to woodlands, exploiting these for shelter and prey availability without strong aversion to human presence. For refuge, individuals use microhabitats such as tree hollows, rock crevices, burrows, and under stones to regulate and evade predators. The species is intolerant of prolonged cold, limiting its activity to warmer months; it is diurnal and active from March to November, basking in open areas like clearings or low vegetation, while hibernating communally in burrows or sheltered sites from November to March.

Physical Characteristics

Morphology

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) is a large, slender colubrid with an elongated head that is barely distinct from the neck, featuring a robust but cylindrical body covered in smooth dorsal scales arranged in 23 rows at midbody (rarely 19 or 21). Adults typically reach lengths of 110–160 cm, though some individuals exceed 2 m, with the tail comprising about 25–30% of the total length. The species exhibits characteristic scale patterns, including 211–250 ventral scales, 60–91 paired subcaudal scales, and a divided anal plate. is present, with males generally larger than females and possessing relatively longer tails (caudal index ~0.25–0.30 relative to snout-vent length) and slightly higher subcaudal counts, while females have more ventral scales on average. Juveniles hatch at a total length of 25–35 cm and exhibit similar proportional morphology to adults, though they grow rapidly to reach subadult sizes of 70–100 cm before maturity at 4–6 years.

Coloration and Variation

The European ratsnake typically displays a dorsal coloration of olive-green, brownish, or uniform , often with a subtle metallic sheen; the ventral surface is pale yellow or white. Juveniles are more boldly patterned, featuring dark stripes and spots on a greenish-yellow background, which largely fade as the snake matures, resulting in a more uniform adult appearance. Color patterns show variation across the range, with southern populations often exhibiting brighter olive tones and northern ones duller greyish hues. Rare polymorphisms include amelanistic (albino) forms and melanistic variants, such as the subgrisea morph—dark grey to black with white flecks and a black venter—resulting from a recessive trait and appearing more frequently in Balkan populations.

Biology and Ecology

Diet and Foraging

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) is a carnivorous colubrid with an opportunistic diet focused on small vertebrates. Adults primarily consume rodents such as mice (Apodemus spp.) and voles (Microtus spp.), which constitute the majority of their prey, alongside small lizards (particularly lacertids like Podarcis muralis), birds, and bird eggs. Juveniles exhibit an ontogenetic dietary shift, incorporating more lizards and even invertebrates (e.g., beetles and earthworms) while still including small mammals like shrews (Sorex spp.). Occasionally, amphibians, bats, and other items like nestlings are taken, reflecting adaptability to local prey availability. In a study of 40 individuals from southeastern , adult ratsnakes (snout-vent length 89–160 cm) had diets comprising 76% mammals (45.8% , 18.7% Soricidae), 13.6% birds or eggs, 9.4% reptiles, and 1% amphibians, while juveniles (27.5–67.5 cm) consumed 45% reptiles, 35% mammals, and 15% . Prey size typically does not exceed 50% of the snake's body mass, allowing for efficient handling and consumption via , where the snake coils around the prey to suffocate it before ingestion. This constrictor strategy is consistent across prey types, with head-first swallowing observed for elongated items like . As an , the European ratsnake employs a sit-and-wait mode, often positioning itself in , canopies, or near structures to intercept prey, though it may actively search in arboreal or cluttered habitats. Activity is primarily diurnal, with peak between 16–25°C, but individuals may shift to nocturnal patterns during extreme heat to avoid and predation risks. Climbing prowess facilitates access to arboreal prey like nests, enhancing efficiency in forested or synanthropic environments. Dietary composition shows minor seasonal shifts, with more prevalent in spring and summer due to increased activity of ectothermic prey, while remain a staple year-round, particularly near human settlements where food is abundant. Birds and eggs are targeted mainly during breeding seasons (e.g., April–May). In populations, no major habitat-driven differences in prey diversity were noted across agro-forest, bushy pasture, and thick forest sites, underscoring the snake's opportunistic nature. Digestion is rapid for small prey items, typically completing in 3–5 days under optimal temperatures (25–35°C), enabling frequent feeding intervals of 7–14 days. Under stress, such as capture or threat, the snake may regurgitate partially digested prey to facilitate escape, a common defensive response in colubrids that conserves energy for survival.

Reproduction

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) is oviparous, with females laying clutches of eggs annually after emerging from . occurs in spring, typically from to June, when males engage in rituals to establish dominance and access to females. These combats involve wrestling displays where males rear up and intertwine, attempting to overpower one another in a ritualized "" without inflicting serious injury. Successful follows, featuring chin-rubbing along the female's body and body-jerking movements to align for copulation. Females reach at 4-6 years of age, corresponding to a body length of approximately 80-100 cm. In to , gravid females deposit 4-12 eggs (average 6-10) in concealed sites such as rotting , rock crevices, or tree hollows, with laying peaking in June-July. Clutch size varies from 2 to 20 eggs across populations but is positively correlated with female body size, with larger, older individuals producing more eggs. Eggs measure 40-60 mm in length and 20-25 mm in diameter, are elongate and leathery, and lack parental guarding after deposition. Eggs incubate for 45-60 days under natural conditions, with optimal temperatures of 25-30°C promoting successful hatching in late summer (August-September). Hatchlings emerge at 20-30 cm in total length, fully independent and capable of foraging immediately, though they face high early mortality. In the wild, individuals may live 10-20 years, though longevity is reduced by predation and environmental factors compared to 25-30 years in captivity. Breeding is annual for most mature females, supporting steady population recruitment where conditions allow.

Behavior and Interactions

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) exhibits primarily diurnal activity patterns, emerging in the morning to bask and , with peak activity typically between 1000 and 1200 hours during warmer months. In hotter periods, individuals may shift to crepuscular , limiting activity to early morning or late afternoon to avoid excessive heat. As of 2025, models predict potential extensions in activity periods due to warming temperatures, though disruptions to may occur (Aznar et al. 2025). As an , the snake relies on behavioral , frequently basking on sun-exposed rocks, embankments, or branches to maintain body temperatures around 24.3°C, which exceeds ambient air until it surpasses 27.8°C. Activity ceases in winter, with occurring communally from October to in underground burrows, rock crevices, or human structures, emerging in or depending on and . Locomotion in Z. longissimus is adapted for diverse terrains, featuring swift climbing on trees, rocks, and walls using its slender, muscular body and for stability. A 2024 radiotelemetry study in the documented movement pathways, revealing preferences for edge habitats and average daily displacements of up to 100 m during . The species is also proficient at swimming, often traversing ponds or streams with undulating movements. When threatened, individuals prioritize flight, rapidly retreating to cover rather than confronting intruders, reflecting a non-aggressive . Defensive responses are mild and escalate only when cornered; the snake may hiss loudly, flatten its head to appear larger, vibrate its against substrate to mimic a , or strike with an open mouth, though bites are rare and lack . Additional tactics include thanatosis (feigning ) or releasing a repulsive odor from anal glands to deter predators. As a mid-level predator, Z. longissimus preys on small vertebrates including , birds, and , constricting them before consumption, which shapes its interactions within ecosystems. It faces predation from such as eagles, hawks, and buzzards, as well as mammals including foxes, badgers, and wild boars, with juveniles particularly vulnerable to smaller predators like hedgehogs and rats. Interactions with humans are generally benign, as the snake is harmless and avoids contact, but its zigzag pattern and size lead to frequent misidentification as venomous vipers, resulting in and killing. In captivity, individuals become docile after acclimation, rarely biting handlers.

Conservation Status

The European ratsnake (Zamenis longissimus) is classified as Least Concern on the (assessed 2009), reflecting its wide distribution and presumed large population across central and . However, regional assessments indicate declines in isolated northern populations, such as those in , , and the , where small, fragmented groups are considered Endangered or Critically Endangered due to habitat limitations and low densities (often fewer than 10 individuals per site). Overall trends are stable in core southern ranges, supported by rates (clutch sizes of 5–20 eggs) and , though long-term monitoring is needed for peripheral areas. Demographic data from field studies show balanced sex ratios near 1:1 in most populations, with juveniles contributing to stability despite occasional biases in marginal sites. Monitoring combines transect surveys, capture-mark-recapture, and platforms like , which have documented thousands of records to map distributions and detect local variations as of 2024. These efforts confirm persistence without global decline, but enhanced surveillance is recommended for northern relicts vulnerable to and changes.

Threats and Conservation Measures

The European ratsnake faces localized threats, primarily from , , and , which reduce edge woodlands and climbing structures essential for and shelter. mortality is significant, especially in northern isolates where vehicle collisions during seasonal movements contribute to declines; due to misidentification as venomous persists in rural areas. Other risks include illegal collection (though minor), , and , with mechanized forestry destroying egg-laying sites like hollows. may exacerbate vulnerabilities in northern populations by altering microclimates. In response, the species is protected under Annexes II and IV of the EU , requiring designation of special conservation areas and prohibiting exploitation, and Appendix II of the Bern Convention for habitat safeguards. Nationally, it is listed as Endangered in and the , Vulnerable in and , and protected under various biodiversity laws (e.g., Bulgaria's Biodiversity Act). Conservation measures include habitat management (e.g., , artificial egg-laying sites), monitoring programs in and the (ongoing as of ), and education campaigns to reduce by promoting recognition of its non-venomous . Presence in sites supports preservation, and while no major global declines are projected, upholding protections is crucial for northern populations.

References

  1. https://www.froglife.org/info-advice/amphibians-and-reptiles/aesculapian-snake/
  2. https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/animals/species/aesculapian-snake
  3. https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Zamenis&species=longissimus
  4. https://www.revistas.usp.br/phyllo/article/download/232215/210467
  5. http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/Zamenis/situla
  6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/colubridae
  7. https://sierraherps.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Utiger-et-al_2002.pdf
  8. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/zsc.12295
  9. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Zamenis
  10. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/aesculapian/
  11. https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id58364/
  12. https://animalia.bio/european-ratsnake
  13. https://www.cretanbeaches.com/en/fauna-and-animal-species/reptiles/snakes/leopard-snake-elaphe-situla
  14. https://animalia.bio/aesculapian-snake
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360963848_Distribution_habitat_requirements_and_conservation_of_the_Aesculapian_snake_Zamenis_longissimus_in_south-eastern_Poland
  16. https://rm.coe.int/16807464d6
  17. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157266/49063773
  18. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/85g3s82f
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282852320_Action_Plan_for_the_Conservation_of_the_Aesculapian_Snake_Zamenis_longissimus_in_Europe
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360938676_Food_habits_of_Zamenis_longissimus_Laurenti_1768_Reptilia_Serpentes_Colubridae_in_Bieszczady_south-eastern_Poland
  21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233073626_Feeding_strategies_of_Elaphe_longissima_from_contrasting_Mediterranean_habitats_in_central_Italy
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233517373_Dietary_patterns_of_two_sympatric_Mediterranean_snakes_Hierophis_viridiflavus_and_Zamenis_longissimus_along_a_gradient_of_habitat_alteration
  23. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/files/38204454/2021AlkinsDMScRes.pdf_with_Marking_the_Unmarkable.pdf
  24. https://www.centennialanimalhospital.com/resources/blog/september-2019/interesting-facts-about-how-snakes-eat
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291917582_Breeding_frequency_clutch_size_reproductive_status_and_correlated_behaviours_in_sympatric_females_Elaphe_quatuorlineata_and_Elaphe_longissima_Reptilia_Colubridae
  26. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175082/
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335426994_Mortality_Rate_and_Activity_Patterns_of_an_Aesculapian_Snake_Zamenis_longissimus_Population_Divided_by_a_Busy_Road
  28. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46590/46590-h/46590-h.htm
  29. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/files/71690717/2024JeffreyLMScRes.pdf
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348061763_Tail_vibration_-_a_rare_newly_described_defensive_behaviour_of_the_aesculapian_snake_Zamenis_longissimus_Laurenti_1768
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293476361_Thanatosis_and_autohaemorrhaging_in_the_Aesculapian_Snake_Zamenis_longissimus_LAURENTI_1768
  32. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/74009-Zamenis-longissimus
  33. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12249206/
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