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Fort Bowyer was a short-lived earthen and stockade fortification that the United States Army erected in 1813 on Mobile Point, near the mouth of Mobile Bay in what is now Baldwin County, Alabama, but then was part of the Mississippi Territory. The British twice attacked the fort during the War of 1812.

Key Information

The first attack took place in September 1814; unsuccessful, it led to the British changing their strategy and attacking New Orleans. The second attack, following the Battle of New Orleans, was successful. It took place in February 1815, after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but before the news had reached that part of America.[1] Between 1819 and 1834 the United States built a new masonry fortification, Fort Morgan, on the site of Fort Bowyer.[2]

Construction

[edit]
Fort Bowyer, mistakenly showing HMS Anaconda instead of HMS Childers[3]

Mobile had been a Spanish possession before the beginning of the Patriot War, but Congress had declared it American territory after the War of 1812 started. After Spanish forces evacuated Mobile in April 1813, the Americans built a redoubt on Mobile Point.[4]

In June 1813, Colonel John Bowyer completed the fort. The fort, which initially had 14 guns, was made of sand and logs and fan-shaped, with the curved face facing the ship channel into Mobile Bay.[4] On the landward side there was a bastion, flanked by two demi-bastions.[5] The fort's purpose was to impede any British invasion at this point on the Gulf Coast, as the fort commanded the narrow entrance to Mobile Bay.[6] About a year after the fort's construction, the Americans abandoned it, but in August 1814, Major William Lawrence and 160 men from the 2nd U.S. Infantry re-garrisoned it.

First battle

[edit]
First Battle of Fort Bowyer
Part of War of 1812
DateSeptember 14–15, 1814
Location
Fort Bowyer, Mississippi Territory
Result American victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom United Kingdom United States United States
Commanders and leaders
William Percy William Lawrence
Strength
British:
60 Royal Marines,
1 artillery piece,
2 sixth-rates,
2 brig-sloops
Native Americans:
~60 warriors
Total: ~120 troops[a]		 160 infantry,[8]
6–14 artillery pieces (disputed),
Casualties and losses
34 killed,
35 wounded[9][10]
1 sixth-rate scuttled,
1 brig-sloop severely damaged		 4 killed,
5+ wounded[11]

The First Battle of Fort Bowyer took place in mid-September, 1814. Captain William Percy of the Royal Navy decided to attack the fort in preparation for an assault on Mobile. He believed Bowyer to be a low, wooden battery mounting some six to 14 small caliber guns.[12][b]

Background

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Capturing the fort would enable the British to move on Mobile and thereby block Louisiana's trade. From Mobile, the British could move overland to Natchez to cut off New Orleans from the north.[14]

Percy took with him HMS Hermes (22 guns), HMS Sophie (18 guns), HMS Carron (20 guns; Captain Robert Cavendish Spencer), and a fourth vessel, HMS Childers (18 guns; Capt. Umfreville).[15][16][c] Lieutenant Colonel Edward Nicolls volunteered to proceed with diversionary forces on land.[d]

On the morning of September 12, Percy landed Nicolls's force of 60 Royal Marines,[e][f][27][g][29] and about 60 Indians, together with a 5+1⁄2-inch howitzer,[h] about 9 miles to the eastward.[30] The British land force then marched against the fort and Lawrence's 160 men.[31]

A further sixty Indians, under First Lieutenant James Cassell,[32] had been detached to secure the pass of Bon Secour 27 miles to the east of the fort, but they played no active part in the attack itself.[7]

The American forces in Fort Bowyer, commanded by William Lawrence, consisted of 160 infantry, and a disputed number of cannon (reports range between 6 and 14 guns).

Battle

[edit]

The battle began with the Americans repulsing the British land attack on September 14. Nicolls, ill at the time, was observing on Hermes. On September 15, after contrary winds had died down, Percy crossed the bar with Hermes, Sophie, Carron, and Childers.[33] The fort opened fire at 3:20 p.m.[33] and at 3:30 Hermes opened fire.[34] The U.S. fort and Hermes were at musket-shot range. At 3:40, Sophie opened fire also, but the other two vessels were not able to get into a firing position.[33][35][i] During the battle a wooden splinter wounded Nicolls in the eye.[36]

The British naval attack was unsuccessful. After two hours of fruitless bombardment, Hermes ran aground and lay helpless under the fire from the fort. Sophie's boats took off Hermes' crew and Percy set her on fire; she subsequently blew up after the fire reached her magazine.[37] The remaining ships anchored for the night some one and half miles from the fort.[35]

Aftermath

[edit]

The next morning they re-crossed the bar and sailed away. Hermes had lost 17 killed in action, 5 mortally wounded and 19 wounded, while Sophie had 6 killed in action, 4 mortally wounded and 12 wounded, and the Carron had one mortally wounded, and 5 wounded. In all, including the marine killed on shore (Charles Butcher), the British lost 34 killed and 35 wounded in the land and naval attacks,[j][9][10] while the Americans lost only four men killed and five or more wounded.[39] Percy's court-martial for the loss of Hermes concluded that the circumstances had warranted the attack.[40]

The defeat at Fort Bowyer led the British to decide to attack New Orleans instead.[citation needed] However, after their defeat at the Battle of New Orleans, the British decided to try again to take Mobile.[41]

Second battle

[edit]
Second Battle of Fort Bowyer
Part of War of 1812
DateFebruary 8–12, 1815
Location
Fort Bowyer, Mississippi Territory
Result British victory
Belligerents
 United Kingdom United States United States
Commanders and leaders
United Kingdom John Lambert United States William T. Lawrence  (POW)
Strength
1,400 infantry,
11 artillery pieces,
3 (estimated) Rocket frames,
 375 infantry,[6]
22 artillery pieces,
Casualties and losses
13 killed,
18 wounded[42]		 1 killed,[43]
10 wounded,[43]
374 captured.[44]

The Second Battle of Fort Bowyer was the first step in a British campaign against Mobile, but turned out to be the last land engagement between British and American forces in the War of 1812.[45]

Background

[edit]

After the unsuccessful British attack in September 1814, American General Andrew Jackson, recognizing Fort Bowyer's strategic importance, ordered the fort strengthened.[6][k] Now its garrison comprised 370 officers and men of the 2nd Infantry Regiment, and Jackson proclaimed "ten thousand men cannot take it".[47] Despite Jackson's bravado, Lawrence, in command of the fort, described his position as precarious because of the undefended landward approaches to the fort.[48]

Following the defeat at New Orleans, Admiral Cochrane and General John Lambert (replacing Pakenham) received some considerable reinforcements,[citation needed] and then went back to the original plan, before New Orleans, which had been to take Mobile first.[49]

The British troops came from the 4th, 21st, and 44th Regiments of Foot, who had fought at New Orleans. The second Brigade was commanded by Arthur Brooke[50] The commander of the naval forces was Captain T.R. Ricketts of the 74-gun third-rate, HMS Vengeur.[51] Captain Spencer of the Carron was among the sailors landed near Mobile, and was second in command of the naval party.[52] The bomb vessels Aetna and Meteor were present during the siege of Fort Bowyer in February 1815.[53]

When the British captured the fort, they discovered that it mounted three long 32-pounders, eight 24s, six 12s, five 9s, a mortar, and a howitzer.[54] However, Fort Bowyer's weakness was its vulnerability to an attack from the landward side.[46]

Battle

[edit]

The British campaign began with an investiture of Fort Bowyer. On 8 February, Lambert landed a force of around 1,000 men seven miles east of the fort.[55] The Royal Engineer Colonel Burgoyne surveyed the fort and decided on the method of attack.[54] That night a 100 yard parallel was dug, at the loss of 10-12 men, which in the morning was occupied by soldiers who kept up such a musket fire on the fort that the enemy could not make any effectual reply.[56]

The next night the parallel was extended and the following night four batteries were completed. The troops brought with them four 18-pounder cannons, two 8-inch howitzers,[54] three 5+1⁄2-inch and two 4.4-inch mortars.[57][58] In addition to these eleven conventional artillery pieces, HMS Tonnant landed Lieutenant John Lawrence's 25-man detachment of Royal Marine Artillery[59][60] with several Congreve rocket launchers, two 6-pounder rockets, and a hundred 12-pounder rockets.[61] While they were constructing their siege works, the British forces endured constant American fire and took light casualties, but continued undeterred. Once their guns were in place, the British were ready to launch a devastating artillery attack on the now vulnerable fort.[46]

On February 12 after a barrage of artillery, Lambert, under a flag of truce, called on the fort to surrender. He demanded that Major Lawrence accept British terms to prevent the needless slaughter of his men. Lawrence realised the vulnerability of the fort. It had no casemates to protect the gunpowder magazine, or the wounded, and it lacked land facing ramparts, which would cost a lot of men to defend. Lawrence reluctantly surrendered to the British,[48] after having resisted for five days.[41] An alternative history from British sources explains that on 11 February, before opening fire, Lambert called upon the fort to surrender. After negotiations, it was agreed that the Americans would leave as prisoners of war the following morning. The Governor reportedly begged for the delay "as so many of his men had got drunk." That was agreed to, with the gate of the fort moving to British control on 11 February, according to a British regimental historian.[56]

Aftermath

[edit]
Further information: Fort Morgan (Alabama)

With Mobile Bay secured by British warships and Fort Bowyer now under British control, the remaining American forces in the area hurried to Mobile to prepare for the expected onslaught there.[citation needed] With Fort Bowyer under control, Admiral Cochrane and General Lambert's next move was to take Mobile.[62]

All British plans were cancelled when HMS Brazen arrived on 13 February, carrying news that the Treaty of Ghent had been signed on the previous Christmas Eve.[63][45] When news of ratification of the treaty arrived, ending the war, the British withdrew.[64]

The final attachment of Mobile to the United States from the Spanish Empire was the only permanent exchange of territory during the War of 1812.[63]

Fort Bowyer subsequently reverted to U.S. control. The War Department would later replace it with the more heavily fortified Fort Morgan.[45]

Two active battalions of the Regular Army (1-1 Inf and 2-1 Inf) perpetuate the lineage of elements of the old 2nd Infantry that was present at Fort Bowyer in both 1814 and 1815.[65][66]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Heidler (2004), p.115.
  2. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
  3. ^ Lossing, Benson (1868). The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. Harper & Brothers, Publishers. p. 1021. ISBN 9780665291364. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  4. ^ a b Chartrand (2012), p. 27.
  5. ^ England et al. (2000), p.10.
  6. ^ a b c Heidler (2004), p.59.
  7. ^ a b James (1818), Vol. 2, p.343.
  8. ^ "Niles' National Register, volume 7". 22 October 1814. p. 93. Letter from Jackson to the US Secretary of War dated September 17, 1814: 'By the morning report of the 16th, there were present in the fort, fit for duty, officers and men 158.'
  9. ^ a b Sugden, on p.292 refers to the 69 casualties mentioned individually in the annex to Cochrane's letter to the Admiralty dated 7 December 1814, archive reference ADM 1/505 folios 161-2
  10. ^ a b Hughes & Brodine (2023), p. 888.
  11. ^ "Niles' National Register, volume 7". 22 October 1814. p. 93. Letter from Lawrence to Jackson dated September 15. 'Our loss is four privates killed and five wounded.'Letter from Lawrence to Jackson dated September 16. 'Capt Walsh and several men were much burned by the accidental explosion of two or three cartridges. They are not included in the list of wounded hereforeto given.'
  12. ^ Marshall (1829), p. 66.
  13. ^ Hughes & Brodine (2023), p. 879-880.
  14. ^ Tucker (2012), p229
  15. ^ Marshall (1829), pp. 66–70.
  16. ^ Remini (2001), pp. 19–20.
  17. ^ Louisiana State maps.
  18. ^ Eaton and Van Crowninshield Smith (1834), pp. 174–176.
  19. ^ Lossing (1868), pp.1020–1021.
  20. ^ Malcomson (2006), p.50.
  21. ^ Marshall (1829), p. 64.
  22. ^ ADM 37/4636 HMS Childers' ship muster.
  23. ^ "ROYAL MARINES [officer appointments]". The Times. No. 20638. London. 5 November 1850. col. 5, p. 4. Notice dated 30 Oct 1850: "Capt W H Parke is appointed, to take the place of the late Capt Robert Henry"
  24. ^ Sugden, on p291, incorrectly spells his surname as Harvey
  25. ^ ADM 37/5250 HMS Carron ship muster.
  26. ^ Latour (1816), p.31.
  27. ^ "Niles' National Register, volume 7". 22 October 1814. p. 93. Letter from Jackson to the US Secretary of War dated September 17, 1814: 'The land force consisted of 110 marines, and 200 Creek Indians, under the command of captain Woodbine, of the marines, and about 20 artillerists, with one four[sic] and a half inch howitzer...They re-embarked the piece, and retreated by land towards Pensacola, whence they came.'
  28. ^ Roosevelt 1900, p. 232.
  29. ^ "Niles' National Register, volume 7". 19 November 1814. p. 166. Journal of a prisoner of the British: 'Sept. 15 – The express returns this evening with the news that the marines, 75, and indians, 130, under the command of captain Henry, had landed at the point and had fired four bombs into the fort.. About an hour after night, we heard a great explosion – suppose it to be the fort blown up.'
  30. ^ James (2002 [1827]), Vol. 6, p.356.
  31. ^ Heidler (2004), p.296.
  32. ^ The Navy List, corrected to the end of December 1814. London: John Murray. 1814. p. 107.
  33. ^ a b c ADM 52/4355 HMS Sophie ship log.
  34. ^ ADM 52/4443 HMS Childers ship log.
  35. ^ a b Marshall (1829), p. 68.
  36. ^ Medical Journal of HMS Hermes ADM 101/104/3 journal transcript
  37. ^ Marshall (1829), Supplement Part 3, p68, Percy records these events occurring one hour later.
  38. ^ Latour (1816), p.34.
  39. ^ James (1818), Vol. 2, p.344.
  40. ^ Marshall (1829), p. 70.
  41. ^ a b Tucker (2012), p.249.
  42. ^ James (1818), Vol.2, p.572.
  43. ^ a b Quimby (1997), p. 941.
  44. ^ Heidler (2004), p.297
  45. ^ a b c Chartrand (2012), p. 29.
  46. ^ a b c Heidler (2004), p.358.
  47. ^ Elting (1995), p.319.
  48. ^ a b Smith (1999), pp. 3–20.
  49. ^ Owsley, F. L. (1972). The Role of the South in the British Grand Strategy in the War of 1812. Tennessee Historical Quarterly, 31(1), p 36
  50. ^ James (1818), p.570, Appendix, folio 109. Letter from General Lambert to Lord Bathurst dated 14 February 1815 "It was considered a brigade would be sufficient for this object, with a respectable force of artillery. I ordered the second brigade, composed of the 4th, 21st and 44th regiments, for this service."
  51. ^ Brenton (1823), p. 200.
  52. ^ Marshall (1829b), p. 260.
  53. ^ Fraser, p. 294
  54. ^ a b c "No. 17004". The London Gazette. 18 April 1815. p. 728.
  55. ^ Porter, p. 365
  56. ^ a b Porter, p. 366
  57. ^ "Battle of Fort Bowyer". www.mywarof1812.com. Retrieved 25 Nov 2012.
  58. ^ The London Gazette does refer to 'eight small cohorns' rather than five mortars.
  59. ^ Heidler, (2004), pp24,56
  60. ^ ADM 37/5167 HMS Tonnant ship muster 1814 Nov – 1815 Apr
  61. ^ Dickson 1929, p. 226.
  62. ^ Owsley Jr., F. L. (1972). "The Role of the South in the British Grand Strategy in the War of 1812". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 31 (1): 36. JSTOR 42623279.
  63. ^ a b Tucker (2012), p250
  64. ^ Fraser, p294, quote:'Lieutenant Lawrence and his RMA detachment remained camped on Dauphine Island [off Mobile Bay] until the treaty had been ratified, after which the squadron and transports returned to Bermuda to prepare for the passage to England'
  65. ^ "Lineage And Honors Information – 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry Lineage". U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 2012-10-17. Retrieved 2012-12-15.
  66. ^ "Lineage And Honors Information – 2d Battalion, 1st Infantry Lineage". U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 2012-01-18. Retrieved 2012-12-15.

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Fort Bowyer

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Fort Bowyer was a small earthen and log fortification erected by the United States Army in 1813 on Mobile Point at the entrance to Mobile Bay in present-day Alabama to defend against British naval threats during the War of 1812. Constructed hastily from sand, logs, and sod, it mounted a limited number of artillery pieces and was garrisoned by a modest force of American soldiers and militia. The fort became the focal point of two significant engagements: a repelled British naval bombardment and barge assault in September 1814, which disrupted enemy plans to advance on New Orleans by securing the Mobile delta region under American control, and a successful British land siege in February 1815 involving approximately 5,000 troops that captured the outpost just prior to the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent. This second battle is regarded as the final land engagement of the war between British and American forces. Following its capture, the site was later redeveloped into the more permanent Fort Morgan, while the original Fort Bowyer structures deteriorated rapidly due to coastal erosion and exposure.

Location and Strategic Role

Geographical Position


Fort Bowyer was constructed on Mobile Point, a narrow, sandy peninsula extending approximately 18 miles westward from the mainland at the eastern entrance to Mobile Bay in Baldwin County, Alabama, situated about 35 miles southwest of Mobile city. The site's coordinates are approximately 30°13.8′ N, 88°1.4′ W. The terrain consists of shifting sands, dunes, and low-lying barriers shaped by coastal processes, including westward migration of the bay mouth barrier, which limited viable land approaches to the fort while exposing it to approaches from to the west and the to the south and east. This configuration provided natural defensibility against overland assaults due to the constrained width of the spit but rendered the position susceptible to naval bombardment and amphibious operations.

Importance to Mobile Bay Defense

Fort Bowyer served as a vital defensive outpost guarding the entrance to , positioned at the tip of Mobile Point to command the narrow channel and deter British naval advances into the Gulf Coast during the War of 1812. British strategy sought to capture Mobile as a forward base for operations targeting New Orleans or incursions into , thereby threatening American supply lines and in the region. The fort's emplacement directly countered these aims by denying easy access to the bay, preserving U.S. naval and commercial access amid escalating threats from squadrons in 1814. Its establishment aligned with broader American efforts to consolidate control over the in the aftermath of victories against the Creek Confederacy in the of 1813–1814. British agents had previously funneled arms and support to hostile Native American factions via Spanish-held Pensacola, fostering resistance to U.S. expansion; Fort Bowyer helped interdict potential British reinforcement routes through Mobile, thereby isolating remaining Native allies and securing frontier stability without reliance on overextended inland garrisons. By dominating Mobile Bay's approaches, the fort regulated navigation into interconnected inland waterways, including the Mobile and Alabama Rivers, which linked the Gulf to the and facilitated essential trade in cotton, timber, and provisions as well as rapid troop deployments across the Southeast. This control underpinned economic resilience and military mobility for the , positioning as a strategic nexus against British designs to sever American interior communications and force concessions along the Gulf frontier.

Construction and Fortifications

Initial Building Efforts

Construction of Fort Bowyer began in April 1813 on Mobile Point, following the U.S. capture of Mobile from Spanish forces on April 15 under Major General , as part of efforts to secure the Gulf Coast during the War of 1812. The initiative responded to escalating threats, including potential British naval incursions into and the regional instability sparked by the Creek War's onset in March 1813. Colonel John Bowyer took command in June 1813 and directed the completion of the initial defenses, a process that transformed a preliminary into a functional named in his honor. Built primarily from locally sourced logs for palisades and sand for earthen components, the structure covered approximately 22,000 square feet in a fan-shaped oriented toward the . Labor consisted of U.S. Army regulars from Wilkinson's command and supporting units, who improvised with makeshift materials amid the frontier's logistical constraints and the peninsula's shifting sandy terrain. By mid-1813, the basic was operational, providing initial protection without permanent heavy armaments or extensive reinforcements.

Design and Defensive Capabilities

Fort Bowyer featured a fan-shaped with a semicircular approximately 400 feet in facing the entrance to , flanked by two straight landward walls each about 60 feet long, enclosing an area of roughly 22,000 square feet. Constructed primarily from sand and logs, the fort incorporated earthen breastworks topped with log stockades to form parapets for mounting , providing absorption against incoming projectiles due to the material's capacity to dissipate through deformation rather than brittle fracture. The armament consisted initially of around 8 to 14 heavy cannons, primarily 6- and 24-pounders sourced from Fort Charlotte in Mobile, positioned on an open without casemates for overhead protection. Landward defenses included a deep ditch functioning as a and palisades, supplemented by of sharpened stakes to impede advances and channel attackers into kill zones under enfilading fire. From an standpoint, the low-profile earthen offered resilience to naval gunfire by minimizing silhouetted and leveraging the sandy substrate's natural fortification against under normal conditions, yet its exposure on Mobile Point rendered it susceptible to sustained , as the lack of elevated bastions limited reciprocal and the open layout facilitated penetration by hot shot or explosives. The design supported a of approximately 160 men, constraining sustained operations due to limited internal space for maneuvers or reserves, while the central powder magazine's vulnerability without bombproofing heightened risks from incendiary rounds. Empirical assessments indicate the fortifications effectively deterred close assaults through anti-infantry obstacles but strained under environmental factors like wave-induced on the seaward face, necessitating ongoing to maintain structural .

First Battle

Lead-Up to Engagement

In early September 1814, British naval forces under Captain William Percy departed Pensacola with the aim of capturing Fort Bowyer to secure control of Mobile Bay's entrance, thereby enabling the seizure of Mobile and disrupting American overland trade routes to as a precursor to operations against New Orleans. The squadron included the 20-gun frigate HMS Hermes as , the 2-gun brig HMS Carron, the tender HMS Sophie, and additional vessels carrying roughly 78 cannon in total, along with 225 and Native American warriors under Lieutenant Colonel Edward Nicolls. On September 12, 1814, the British ships anchored approximately six miles east of the fort, and Nicolls led an initial landing of troops to reconnoiter landward approaches and probe American positions, initiating minor skirmishes that tested the garrison's alertness without committing to a full assault. American forces had anticipated such a move following British activities in Pensacola; in August 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson dispatched Major William Lawrence with 160 men, primarily from the 2nd U.S. Infantry supplemented by artillery units, to reoccupy and fortify the outpost, which had been briefly abandoned earlier. Lawrence's command focused on repairing earthworks and positioning the fort's limited armament—six 24-pounder long guns and four 6-pounder field pieces—to cover both seaward and landward threats. Reports from local scouts and observers confirmed the British squadron's approach by September 12, allowing Lawrence to concentrate his outnumbered force and prepare for an imminent combined naval and land attack expected within days.

Course of the Battle

On September 15, 1814, British forces under Captain William Percy initiated their assault on Fort Bowyer with a combined land and naval operation. A land contingent of approximately 500 to 600 British troops and Native American allies, led by Lieutenant Colonel Edward Nicolls, advanced toward the fort but encountered difficult swampy terrain along the narrow spit of land, which slowed their progress and exposed them to American defensive fire. Simultaneously, the British squadron, including the flagship and supporting vessels HMS Sophie, HMS Carron, and HMS Childers, approached from the bay to bombard the fort's seaward batteries. The Americans, commanded by Major William Lawrence with a of about 160 men manning 20 cannons, responded with sustained fire, including (hot shot) that proved effective against wooden ships. After roughly two hours of exchange, Hermes ran aground within close range of the fort's guns due to navigational errors amid shallow waters and shifting sands, placing it directly under heavy American cannonade. The grounded Hermes suffered critical damage as American hot shot penetrated its hull, igniting fires in the hold and ammunition stores; the crew attempted to scuttle it but ultimately abandoned ship after setting it ablaze to prevent capture. Musketry from the fort's defenders further repelled British probes attempting to support the naval effort or exploit the . Lacking effective coordination between the land and sea components—exacerbated by the loss of the and Nicolls' illness—the British forces disengaged after several hours of combat, withdrawing without achieving a breach.

Results and Tactical Lessons

The First Battle of Fort Bowyer concluded with a decisive American victory on September 15, 1814, enabling U.S. forces under Major William Lawrence to retain control of the fort and secure against British incursion. British casualties amounted to 32 killed and 39 wounded, including losses from the grounding and subsequent burning of the sloop , which had provided close naval support but became a stationary target for American . American losses were comparatively light, with 4 killed and 5 wounded among the garrison of approximately 160 men armed with 18 heavy guns. This lopsided outcome preserved American dominance in the region, thwarting British plans to establish Mobile as a staging point for further operations. Tactically, the battle demonstrated the fort's advantageous positioning on Mobile Point, where its pentagonal earthworks and enfilading fields of fire neutralized the British numerical superiority—over 350 troops and allied Creek warriors supported by four vessels mounting around 80 guns. The earthen defenses absorbed naval effectively, limiting structural damage and allowing sustained counterfire that disrupted the amphibious landing and isolated the force. British commanders, led by Captain William Percy, underestimated the need for coordinated heavy or reinforced land assaults, resulting in an uncoordinated attack vulnerable to the fort's low-profile guns and the constraining terrain of the narrow peninsula. Key lessons included the vulnerability of isolated in shallow waters against shore batteries, as Hermes's immobility exposed it to without maneuverability or escape. The engagement exposed deficiencies in British amphibious doctrine for the Gulf theater, where reliance on opportunistic landings without engineering preparation or overwhelming firepower proved costly against even modest fixed defenses. For American forces, it validated the efficacy of irregular earthen forts in asymmetric coastal warfare, though it also highlighted the ongoing requirement for vigilant scouting to counter surprise naval threats. The repulse delayed British regional ambitions, forestalling an overland advance on New Orleans via Mobile and forcing a pivot to alternative routes through .

Second Battle

British Preparations Post-New Orleans

Following the disastrous British defeat at on January 8, 1815, which resulted in over 2,000 British casualties, Vice Admiral Sir shifted focus to securing as a strategic foothold in the . Despite the recent setback and the existence of peace negotiations culminating in the —signed December 24, 1814, but unknown to British commanders—Cochrane pressed ahead with plans for a February assault on Fort Bowyer to enable an advance on Mobile itself. The objective was to capture the fort swiftly, neutralizing American control of the bay's entrance before any potential ratification delays could alter the theater. Major General John Lambert, assuming command of surviving expeditionary forces after Lieutenant General Sir Edward Pakenham's death at New Orleans, assembled a land contingent of approximately 1,000 to 1,400 troops, including battalions reinforced by detachments. On February 8, 1815, Lambert's men disembarked about seven miles east of Fort Bowyer along Mobile Point, advancing to invest the position and cut off landward reinforcements while establishing siege lines. Concurrently, Cochrane's naval squadron, featuring bomb vessels and frigates such as HMS Meteor and HMS Anaconda, positioned offshore to deliver a preparatory against the fort's seaward defenses, aiming to soften resistance for the assault. British intelligence, drawn from reconnaissance and prior engagements, significantly underestimated the fort's capabilities, assuming minimal American reinforcements and outdated earthen works vulnerable to concentrated fire and bayonet charges. This miscalculation stemmed partly from the first failed assault in September 1814, where a smaller British force had been repulsed, yet overlooked subsequent U.S. repairs and the addition of heavier guns under Major William Lawrence. The operation's haste reflected Cochrane's intent to exploit momentum from the broader Gulf strategy, incorporating limited Native American auxiliaries like scouts for initial probing, though their role proved marginal.

The Land Assault and Naval Support

British forces under Major General John Lambert initiated the land phase of the operation on February 8, 1815, by landing roughly 5,000 troops and artillerists approximately seven miles east of Fort Bowyer along the narrow Mobile Point peninsula. These troops, including veterans from the recent New Orleans campaign, advanced westward under cover of the terrain to position artillery batteries on the fort's landward side, which faced fewer guns compared to the seaward defenses. Royal Engineers, led by Colonel John Fox Burgoyne, constructed a 100-yard siege line despite harassing fire from the American garrison, emplacing 11 field guns and three Congreve rocket launchers to enfilade the fort's rear. Supporting the ground advance, British warships under Vice Admiral commenced of the fort's seaward batteries as early as , with vessels including bomb ketches and frigates delivering sustained naval gunfire to suppress American and divert attention from the landward approach. This naval fire, totaling contributions from up to 38 ships though not all directly engaged, targeted the stronger seaward-facing defenses, enabling the land forces to maneuver into position without full exposure to the fort's broadsides. The combined operation unfolded over several days, with the siege batteries opening fire by February 10 or 11, creating crossfire that overwhelmed the garrison's ability to respond effectively on multiple fronts. The American defenders, approximately 375 men under Major William Lawrence equipped with 22 cannon, contested the British advance by directing fire at the approaching columns and battery construction sites, inflicting casualties estimated at 31 killed and wounded among the attackers. British tactics emphasized coordinated rather than a direct frontal storming, using the peninsula's sandy dunes and elevation for covered advances and flanking the fort's primary orientation toward the bay. This methodical envelopment, sustained for about five days until the fort's capitulation on February 12, highlighted the integration of naval suppression and landward works in overcoming fixed defenses.

American Defense and Capitulation

The American garrison, under Major William Lawrence of the 2nd U.S. Infantry, numbered approximately 375 men equipped with 22 and fortified against a potential landward assault. From February 8, 1815, British forces under John Lambert established lines with trenches and batteries, initiating a that targeted the fort's exposed rear defenses. The defenders repelled initial advances and inflicted during the five-day engagement, leveraging the fort's earthen structure to absorb naval and land-based fire. Facing an overwhelming British presence of over 1,400 landed troops supported by naval assets, the endured mounting pressure from the barrage, which threatened to create breaches in the vulnerable landward walls. On February 12, Lawrence capitulated to Lambert's terms, surrendering the fort intact to avert a costly and preserve his command. Casualties were light relative to the scale: the Americans suffered 11 total (killed and wounded), while the British incurred 31. This action constituted the War of 1812's final land engagement between the belligerents, occurring after the Treaty of Ghent's signing on December 24, 1814, but prior to news of its ratification reaching the Gulf Coast.

Aftermath and Dissolution

Immediate Post-Battle Developments

Following the American capitulation on February 12, 1815, British forces under Major General John Lambert occupied Fort Bowyer, securing the site as part of their intended advance on Mobile. However, on February 13, HMS Brazen arrived with dispatches announcing the signing of the on December 24, 1814, prompting the British to abandon plans for further assaults and initiate withdrawal preparations. The formal transfer of the fort back to control occurred on March 25, 1815, after which British troops evacuated the position without incident. American forces, led by Major William Lawrence with U.S. Army regulars, promptly reoccupied the fort and undertook limited repairs to the damaged earthen and structure, restoring basic functionality in the immediate postwar period. This handover proceeded peacefully, with no documented reprisals against captured American personnel or local inhabitants, reflecting the rapid de-escalation as ratification news disseminated and both sides redirected resources amid extended supply lines in the Gulf theater. The episode underscored the operational strains on British following their recent engagements, including the diversion of troops and from New Orleans.

Treaty of Ghent Implications

The , signed on December 24, 1814, and ratified by the U.S. on February 16, 1815 (effective February 17), restored pre-war boundaries between the and without territorial concessions or addressing underlying issues like . This outcome negated any potential strategic gains from late-war engagements in the Gulf region, including the British capture of Fort Bowyer on February 11, 1815. The fort's seizure, executed by approximately 1,300 British troops under Major General John Lambert following the failed New Orleans campaign, aimed to secure as a base for further operations against American holdings in and . However, on February 13, HMS Brazen delivered dispatches confirming the treaty's signing, prompting British withdrawal and the fort's prompt return to U.S. forces without conditions. This sequence underscored the operation's obsolescence, as communication delays—common in the era—prevented alignment with diplomatic realities, but the treaty's terms ensured Mobile remained American territory regardless. Critics of British command, including contemporary observers, noted the persistence of the assault despite the prior repulse at New Orleans and absence of confirmed signals, reflecting overextension in a theater where naval superiority failed to yield enduring advantages. Empirically, the Gulf campaign produced zero net territorial shifts for Britain despite deploying over 10,000 troops post-1814, affirming the efficacy of U.S. coastal fortifications in preserving the antebellum boundary lines amid the peace settlement.

Historical Significance and Legacy

Role in War of 1812 Outcomes

The defense of Fort Bowyer during the First Battle on September 12–15, 1814, repelled a British naval squadron of four vessels mounting 78 guns, supported by 60 marines and 180 Native American allies, using a of approximately 160 American regulars armed with 12 cannons in a rudimentary sand-and-log . This victory inflicted around 70 British casualties, including the grounding and destruction of , while American losses totaled about 10 killed or wounded, thereby delaying British plans to capture as a staging base for an overland advance westward along the Gulf Coast. By preventing the seizure of Mobile, the fort disrupted potential British efforts to isolate New Orleans from eastern supply lines and control the north of the city, forcing to redirect approximately 5,000 troops via a riskier sea voyage to , where they suffered defeat at on January 8, 1815. The Second Battle of Fort Bowyer, fought from February 7–12, 1815, demonstrated the persistent British threat in the region despite the earlier setback, as a force of roughly 1,300 soldiers, backed by 38 warships, conducted a five-day land siege with 11 field guns and three Congreve rockets, compelling the surrender of 370 American defenders with minimal resistance after their ammunition depleted. British casualties numbered about 31, against 11 American, underscoring naval and numerical superiority that overwhelmed the fort's terrain advantages—such as shallow approaches limiting large vessels—but the victory proved futile, occurring after the Treaty of Ghent's signing on December 24, 1814, with ratification news arriving on February 13, halting further advances on Mobile and requiring the fort's return to U.S. control. Overall, Fort Bowyer's engagements highlighted the causal effectiveness of modest fortifications in terrain-constrained defenses against expeditionary forces, as the first battle's success with limited resources deterred a coordinated Gulf offensive that might have divided American attention from New Orleans, while the second illustrated the of British logistical commitments—thousands of troops, multiple vessels, and specialized ordnance—for no enduring territorial gains amid the war's resolution. This balance reflected American resilience in opportunistic holdings against British maritime dominance, though the fort's vulnerability to sustained and assaults underscored limits without reinforcement, contributing to the war's outcome under the by neutralizing late British maneuvers in the theater.

Transition to Fort Morgan

Following the in 1815, Fort Bowyer, constructed as a temporary earthen and wooden during the , was abandoned by U.S. forces and permitted to deteriorate. In response to vulnerabilities exposed by the conflict, authorized the Third System of coastal fortifications in 1816, emphasizing permanent brick and masonry structures designed for long-term harbor defense against naval threats. Construction of Fort Morgan commenced in 1819 on the same Mobile Point site as its predecessor, incorporating pentagonal casemates, ramparts, and seaward batteries to mount heavy artillery, with primary work concluding by 1834. This architectural evolution marked a departure from ad-hoc fieldworks reliant on sand, logs, and slave labor toward engineered defenses using fired and vaulted interiors, enabling sustained operations under and reflecting empirical lessons in materials durability and strategic placement derived from 1812 engagements. Fort Morgan remained operational through the antebellum era, including the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), though it saw no direct combat as lay distant from primary theaters. The fort's enduring design proved its value during the , when Confederate forces seized and reinforced it in 1861. In the on August 5–23, 1864, Fort Morgan served as the primary bastion guarding the channel entrance, with its 40 guns and minefields initially repelling Union Admiral David Farragut's fleet; sustained naval bombardment exceeding 3,000 shells eventually compelled surrender on August 23, after which the structure endured further siege until Union occupation. This episode underscored the Third System's resilience against ironclad advances, though obsolescence to rifled artillery and steam propulsion prompted later end-of-century overhauls.

Preservation and Modern Recognition

The remnants of Fort Bowyer are integrated into the Fort Morgan State Historic Site on Mobile Point, Alabama, where the site is maintained by the Alabama Historical Commission to preserve its military fortifications and associated structures. Fort Morgan, constructed atop the original Bowyer location starting in 1819, received designation as a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, recognizing its role in coastal defense from the War of 1812 onward. Management efforts emphasize structural stability and public interpretation, with no large-scale archaeological excavations of the original stockades documented, though erosion occasionally reveals traces of the 1813 earthen works. Interpretive markers at the site detail the 1814-1815 battles, highlighting American defensive tactics and British assaults without extensive site alteration. Public access is provided through the and adjacent Gulf Shores recreational areas, facilitating visits year-round with guided tours focused on emplacements and strategic . Commemorative activities peaked during the bicentennial from 2012 to 2015, including demonstrations and reenactments of the fort's engagements to underscore its tactical contributions to southern theater operations. These events, coordinated with regional historical groups, prioritized factual narratives over broader geopolitical interpretations.

References

  1. https://ahc.alabama.gov/properties/ftmorgan/ftmorgan.aspx
  2. https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/founders/sitec1.htm
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  5. https://baldwincountyal.gov/community/about-baldwin-county/history-of-baldwin-county/historic-compilations-brief-history
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  11. https://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/fort-bowyer/
  12. https://history.army.mil/portals/143/Images/Publications/catalog/74-7.pdf
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  15. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Fort_Bowyer
  16. https://southernhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/fort-bowyer-alabamas-forgotten-battle.html
  17. https://www.facebook.com/HistoricFortMorgan/posts/fort-bowyer-was-constructed-by-the-us-army-during-1813-to-guard-against-possible/1793550347455256/
  18. https://www.exploresouthernhistory.com/fortbowyer.html
  19. https://battleofneworleans.org/mainbattle.htm
  20. https://battleofneworleans.org/commanders.htm
  21. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/war-1812/battles/second-fort-bowyer
  22. https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=118334
  23. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-ghent
  24. https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/treaties/senate-approves-treaty-of-ghent.htm
  25. https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/major-events/war-of-1812-chronology/
  26. https://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/forts-morgan-and-gaines/
  27. https://ahc.alabama.gov/FtMorganHistoryFacts.aspx
  28. https://cdsg.org/fort-morgan-mobile-bay/
  29. https://www.nps.gov/articles/fort-morgan-and-the-battle-of-mobile-bay-teaching-with-historic-places.htm
  30. https://www.usgulfcoasttravelguide.com/fort-morgan-feature
  31. https://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/fort-morgan-museum-and-state-historic-site/
  32. https://www.al.com/spotnews/2012/07/war_of_1812s_last_battle_fough.html
  33. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kC2oz9r0foU
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