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Anaxyrus fowleri
Anaxyrus fowleri
Anaxyrus fowleri
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Fowler's toad
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Bufonidae
Genus: Anaxyrus
Species:
A. fowleri
Binomial name
Anaxyrus fowleri
(Hinckley, 1882)
Synonyms[2]
  • Bufo fowleri
    Hinckley, 1882
  • Bufo lentiginosus fowleri
    — Garman, 1884
  • Bufo woodhousii fowleri
    — H.M. Smith, 1934
  • Bufo compactilis fowleri
    — Linsdale, 1940
  • Anaxyrus fowleri
    — Frost et al., 2006
  • Bufo (Anaxyrus) fowleri
    — Fouquette & Dubois [fr], 2014
Fowler's toad in leaf litter

Anaxyrus fowleri, Fowler's toad,[3] is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. The species is native to North America, where it occurs in much of the eastern United States and parts of adjacent Canada.[1][2] It was previously considered a subspecies of Woodhouse's toad (Anaxyrus woodhousii, formerly Bufo woodhousii).[2][4]

Etymology

[edit]

The specific name, fowleri, is in honor of naturalist Samuel Page Fowler (1800–1888) from Massachusetts, who was a founder of the Essex County Natural History Society, which later became the Essex Institute.[5]

Description

[edit]

Fowler's toad is usually brown, grey, olive green and rust red in color with darkened warty spots. If the toad has a pale stripe on its back, it is an adult. The belly is usually uniformly whitish except for one dark spot. The male may be darker in overall color than the female.[6]

The adult toad is typically 5 to 9.5 cm (2.0 to 3.7 in) in head-body length. The tadpole is oval with a long tail and upper and lower fins, and is 1 to 1.4 cm (0.39 to 0.55 in) long.[6]

Range

[edit]

Their native geographic range is eastern North America. Their range extends throughout most of the southeastern and eastern United States and parts of southeastern Canada. They reside in areas near temporary or permanent wetlands as well as forested areas.[7]

Reproduction

[edit]

Fowler's toad reproduces in warmer seasons of the year, especially in May and June. It breeds in open, shallow waters such as ponds, lakeshores, and marshes. The male produces a call which attracts not only females, but also other males. The calling male may attempt to mate with one of the other males, which will then produce a chirping "release call", informing him of his mistake. It has been found that male Fowler's toads mating calls are affected by the body size and temperature of the caller. Females are often able to discriminate between variations in these calls and select the largest available males.[8] Males are able to alter their calls to make them seem more attractive to females through thermoregulation. When a male finds a female, the pair will initiate amplexus and up to 7,000 to 10,000 eggs are fertilized. They hatch in 2 to 7 days. Based on observations, Fowler's toads breed repeatedly through the spring.[9] As many as 10 different age classes, separated by several days, have been observed over the course of a breeding season in one small pond. A new tadpole may reach sexual maturity in one season, but the process may take up to three years.

Fowler's toad regularly hybridizes with two of its close relatives: the American toad and the Woodhouse's toad. The Woodhouse's toad subspecies Anaxyrus woodhousii velatus, or the East Texas toad, is possibly a hybrid of the Woodhouse's toad and the Fowler's toad.[10]

Behavior

[edit]

Predators of Fowler's toad include snakes, birds, and small mammals. It uses defensive coloration to blend into its surroundings. It also secretes a noxious compound from the warts on its back. The secretion, containing toxic bufadienolides, is distasteful to predators and can be lethal to small mammals.[11] The toad is also known to play dead.

Habitat

[edit]

Fowler's toad lives in open woodlands, sand prairies, meadows, and beaches. It burrows into the ground during hot, dry periods and during the winter. They are often found hiding under broad leaved plants, amidst clumps of grass, and inside or under logs.[12] Their springtime emergence is associated with increased temperature, relatively little rainfall or wind, and a gibbous moon.[13]

Diet

[edit]

The adult Fowler's toad eats insects and other small terrestrial invertebrates, but avoids earthworms, unlike its close relative, the American toad (Anaxyrus americanus). This toad also has been shown to eat velvet ants, which is a wasp that gives a very painful sting to humans, but does nothing to the toad.[14] The tadpole scrapes algae and bacterial mats from rocks and plants using the tooth-like structures in its mouth.

In Missouri Ozarks

Conservation status

[edit]

An important conservation measure for Fowler's toad is the protection of its breeding sites. Off-road vehicles commonly used in beach and dune habitats are damaging to this species. Agricultural chemicals have caused declines in some areas. These factors along with specific habitat requirements and excessive human activity within these habitats produces permanent, local extinctions.[15] It is considered a species at risk in Ontario,[4] a species of special concern in the U.S. state of New Jersey,[16] and a regionally threatened or endangered species in the states of New Hampshire[17] and Vermont.[18] On April 15th, 2024, Canada Post released a stamp with a Fowler's toad to raise public awareness of these amphibians.[19]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Anaxyrus fowleri

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from Grokipedia
Anaxyrus fowleri, commonly known as Fowler's toad, is a small to medium-sized of in the Bufonidae, native to much of the and parts of southeastern . Adults typically measure 2 to 3.75 inches (51–95 mm) in snout-vent length, with a dorsal coloration ranging from , gray, or to occasionally greenish or reddish hues, featuring a prominent light middorsal stripe and dark blotches each containing three or more . The species is distinguished by its parotoid glands that border the cranial ridges and an often immaculate white venter, though some individuals may have a dark spot on the chest. Fowler's toads inhabit sandy, open areas near aquatic breeding sites such as river valleys, lakeshores, and floodplains, preferring friable soils for burrowing to avoid . Fowler's toads are primarily nocturnal and insectivorous, feeding on a variety of small terrestrial including beetles, , and spiders, but notably avoiding earthworms unlike their close relative, the (Anaxyrus americanus). Their diet supports their as beneficial predators in agricultural and natural ecosystems, consuming pests that could otherwise damage crops or native vegetation. Reproduction occurs during the breeding season, typically from to (late April to mid-August, varying by region), often triggered by heavy rains that fill shallow, temporary water bodies such as ponds, ditches, and flooded fields. Males produce a distinctive, nasal "waaaah" call lasting 1–4 seconds to attract females, after which females lay single strings of 6,000–25,000 eggs in shallow water, which hatch into tadpoles within days; metamorphosis into toadlets usually completes in 4–6 weeks. is reached at around two years of age, with females growing slightly larger than males. The geographic range of A. fowleri spans from eastern and northward to and , covering coastal plains, inland sandy regions, and areas up to western and , though it is absent from warmer southeastern extremes and higher elevations. Populations are generally stable and locally abundant in suitable habitats, but they face localized threats from habitat loss due to , agriculture, and coastal development, as well as invasive plants like common reed () that degrade breeding sites in some areas. Globally, Anaxyrus fowleri is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its wide distribution, large population size, and adaptability to human-modified landscapes, though it is considered endangered in parts of its Canadian range and a of special concern in several U.S. states where poses risks. Conservation efforts focus on protecting upland burrowing habitats and ephemeral wetlands essential for breeding, with ongoing monitoring to mitigate declines from road mortality and .

Taxonomy and Etymology

Taxonomy

Anaxyrus fowleri belongs to the family Bufonidae, the true toads, and was originally described as Bufo fowleri by Mary H. Hinckley in 1882, based on differences in mouth structure observed in specimens from . The description initially focused on larval characteristics distinguishing it from the (Anaxyrus americanus), and subsequent studies confirmed its status as a distinct in the adult stage. Syntypes include MCZ 518 (4 specimens) from ; a neotype (UMMZ 50246) was later designated from . Historically, A. fowleri was classified within the Bufo and often treated as a of Woodhouse's toad (Anaxyrus woodhousii), known as Bufo woodhousii fowleri, due to morphological similarities. This taxonomic arrangement persisted until molecular analyses revealed significant genetic divergence. In 2002, studies demonstrated that A. fowleri forms a distinct lineage separate from A. woodhousii, supporting its elevation to full status. No are currently recognized within A. fowleri. A major taxonomic revision occurred in 2006, when Frost et al. reclassified many North American bufonids, moving eastern species including A. fowleri from to the resurrected genus based on comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of molecular data. This split distinguished eastern lineages, which exhibit unique genetic and morphological traits, from western and species retained in Bufo or other genera. The reclassification reflects broader evolutionary patterns within Bufonidae, emphasizing geographic and genetic isolation. Phylogenetically, A. fowleri is part of the Anaxyrus americanus within Bufonidae, showing close relations to A. americanus () and A. terrestris (southern toad) based on shared mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Hybridization is documented in overlapping ranges, particularly with A. americanus across much of the , and less frequently with A. terrestris in southern contact zones, leading to and occasional morphological intermediates. These interactions highlight ongoing within the complex, though A. fowleri maintains distinct evolutionary identity.

Etymology

The genus name derives from the anax (ἄναξ), meaning "lord," "master," or "king." This nomenclature reflects a "lordly" or prominent status among North American bufonids, as interpreted in herpetological literature. The specific epithet fowleri honors Fowler (1800–1888), an American naturalist, physician, and co-founder of the Essex Institute (now part of the ) in . The species was originally described as Bufo fowleri by Mary H. Hinckley in , based on material from . It was later synonymized with Bufo americanus LeConte, 1825, and briefly treated as a of Bufo woodhousii Girard, 1854, before reinstatement as a distinct species; the was reclassified from to in 2006 to reflect phylogenetic relationships among North American toads.

Physical Characteristics

Adult Morphology

Adult Anaxyrus fowleri individuals exhibit a snout-vent (SVL) ranging from 5 to 9.5 cm, with females typically larger than males, reaching up to 9.5 cm while males measure up to approximately 7 cm. The body is robust and compact, adapted to terrestrial life, with short hind limbs relative to the overall size. The dorsal coloration varies from grayish-brown to reddish-brown or olive, often featuring prominent dark spots that each contain three or more , distinguishing it from similar species like Anaxyrus americanus which have fewer per spot. A light mid-dorsal stripe is commonly present, running along the back, while the ventral surface is pale or whitish, usually immaculate but occasionally marked by a single small dark spot on the chest. The skin is rough and warty throughout, providing a textured appearance typical of bufonids, with no greatly enlarged on the . Key head features include prominent cranial crests that form a characteristic U- or V-shape, connected to large, kidney-shaped parotoid glands positioned behind the eyes. These glands are bulging and oblong, serving as defensive structures containing bufotoxins. is evident in coloration, with males often darker overall, and in forelimb modifications, where breeding males develop darkened nuptial pads on the first three fingers to aid in . A 2025 study on northeastern populations found that body size (SVL) is negatively correlated with and , with sizes declining over time linked to rising variables.

Developmental Stages

The eggs of Anaxyrus fowleri are laid in strings that can extend up to several meters in shallow water, typically containing 6,000 to 35,000 eggs per , varying by female size and region. These eggs are in color, and surrounded by transparent jelly, providing protection and buoyancy in aquatic environments. occurs within 2 to 7 days under favorable conditions, marking the transition to the larval stage. Upon , measure approximately 8 to 12 mm in length, featuring a dark body with a translucent equipped with fins for . Primarily herbivorous, they graze on , , and scraped from substrates using tooth-like structures in their mouths. typically completes in 30 to 60 days, during which hind limbs develop, the is gradually resorbed—often leaving minor scars—and the transforms into a toadlet capable of terrestrial life. Juvenile A. fowleri emerge at with a snout-vent length (SVL) of 1 to 2 cm, exhibiting brighter olive-green coloration compared to adults and lacking fully developed . Over the first year, they develop the characteristic dorsal and tubercles as their toughens for terrestrial . Growth is rapid initially but slows after the second year, with individuals reaching at 2 to 3 years of age. In the wild, lifespan averages 5 to 10 years, though it can extend longer in .

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Anaxyrus fowleri is native to the eastern and central United States, with its range extending from southern and southward to and the Gulf Coast, and westward to southeastern , , eastern , and eastern Oklahoma. The species also occurs in disjunct populations in southern , , restricted to sandy areas along the northern shore of . Historically, the toad's distribution was broader in northern portions of its range, but it has undergone contraction at these edges primarily due to habitat loss, including local declines in Canadian populations. As of 2025 assessments, core populations remain stable across much of the eastern U.S., including confirmed persistence in . At the northwestern periphery, the species is marginal in southeastern , with potential local extirpations noted in surveys, while vagrant individuals have been recorded in beyond the core range. The elevation range spans from to approximately 1,200 meters, though A. fowleri is largely absent from higher elevations in the . In the northeastern U.S., its distribution overlaps with that of Anaxyrus americanus, leading to hybridization in contact zones.

Habitat Preferences

Anaxyrus fowleri primarily inhabits areas with sandy or loose soils, favoring coastal plains, open woodlands, grasslands, sand prairies, dunes, and river floodplains where it can easily. These toads are often found in dry scrub, fields, pastures, and even agricultural or residential areas with suitable soil, as long as deep, loose, sandy or gravelly substrates are available for during the day, hot periods, or winter. typically extend 15–30 cm deep, providing refuge below the frost line or above the . Breeding occurs in shallow, temporary or permanent waters such as vernal pools, roadside ditches, flooded fields, farm ponds, marshes, and slow-moving streams or river backwaters, preferably with emergent vegetation like sedges and bulrushes and sandy bottoms with gradual slopes. These sites lack strong currents and support egg and larval development, with the toads avoiding fast-flowing waters. pH in preferred breeding habitats typically ranges from 5.5 to 6.6, though the species shows tolerance for slightly acidic conditions in coastal blackwater systems. In microhabitats, A. fowleri exhibits nocturnal activity, often near edges at night, and seeks cover during the day under rocks, , or in burrows. During dry periods, individuals aestivate in self-dug burrows or those abandoned by in sandy uplands adjacent to breeding sites, helping them endure drought. Coastal populations demonstrate resilience to mild , persisting in brackish habitats near estuaries or developed shorelines. The species prefers temperate climates with temperatures between 10°C and 30°C for activity and breeding, becoming active above 10°C and less so above 25°C, while selecting microclimates around 30°C during rest. Recent using specimens indicates that body size decreases with higher and temperatures, suggesting climate-driven shifts in morphology.

Ecology

Diet and Foraging

Anaxyrus fowleri adults are opportunistic generalist insectivores, primarily consuming a variety of terrestrial arthropods such as beetles (Coleoptera), (Hymenoptera), flies (Diptera), spiders (Araneae), and lepidopteran larvae. Stomach content analyses from populations in reveal that ants comprise approximately 39% of prey items by number, while beetles represent the most diverse with 28 identified taxa, indicating a preference for ground-dwelling . (Orthoptera) and other small insects are also consumed, though earthworms are notably avoided, unlike in closely related . Stomachs can contain numerous prey items, with one study documenting an average of about 19 items per individual across 13 examined toads, reflecting their capacity for multiple captures during foraging bouts. Foraging in adults is predominantly nocturnal, employing a sit-and-wait strategy where individuals remain stationary and use visual cues to detect movement before projecting their to capture prey at distances up to several centimeters. They approach potential prey by walking rather than hopping, which facilitates precise strikes, and activity may extend to humid, overcast days. Post-metamorphic juveniles target smaller items like collembolans, , and fly larvae to support rapid growth, transitioning to larger s as they mature. This insectivorous diet provides high protein content essential for somatic growth and energy demands, with no evidence of specialized nutritional requirements beyond broad arthropod consumption. Tadpoles of A. fowleri are primarily herbivorous and detritivorous, feeding on , , , and small aquatic plants through filter-feeding mechanisms involving to suspend and ingest particulate matter in the . They scrape algal films and bacterial mats from submerged substrates using specialized oral structures, occasionally consuming organic debris or dead . This diet sustains larval development in shallow, temporary waters, facilitating without reliance on animal prey.

Reproduction

The breeding season of Anaxyrus fowleri varies geographically, typically occurring from March to August in southern populations and May to July in northern ones, often triggered by warm, heavy rains that fill shallow wetlands. Males gather in choruses at breeding sites, producing a high-pitched, nasal "waaaah" call lasting 2–3 seconds, repeated in series with pauses of 3–10 seconds, to attract females from shallow water edges. These explosive breeding aggregations feature a male-biased , often exceeding 10:1, with females selecting larger males for mating. Mating involves axillary or supra-axillary , where pairs remain together until egg deposition, typically lasting several hours to days. Females lay eggs in one or two long, gelatinous strings over 1–2 nights, with strands containing 17–25 eggs per 25 cm and individual eggs measuring 1–1.5 mm in diameter, pigmented black above and tan below. Clutch size ranges from approximately 2,000 to over 25,000 eggs and positively correlates with female body size, with larger females producing more than 20,000 eggs in some cases. Egg hatchlings face high predation and environmental risks, resulting in low larval survival rates of about 12% from hatching to metamorphosis, though overall recruitment to adulthood is much lower at around 0.1%. No occurs after egg laying, though males briefly defend calling territories during chorusing to secure mates.

Anaxyrus fowleri exhibits strictly nocturnal activity patterns, emerging from at to forage and move about while avoiding daytime heat and . During the day, individuals burrow into loose, sandy to remain hidden and conserve moisture. In winter, from approximately October to April, they enter in frost-free burrows below the frost line, remaining dormant until spring warming. Locomotion in A. fowleri primarily involves a hopping gait, consisting of repeated short bounds rather than single long leaps, allowing for sustained movement across terrain. Individuals can achieve hops up to 37 cm in distance on sandy substrates, though typical hops are shorter at 13–15 cm. They are also capable of climbing low vegetation and structures for brief periods. Males produce release calls, a chirping vocalization, during unwanted amplexus to signal other males. Defensive mechanisms of A. fowleri include toxic secretions containing bufadienolides, which are distasteful and potentially lethal to small predators upon . When threatened, toads may inflate their bodies and adopt a rigid posture to appear larger, deterring attackers. Cryptic coloration, with mottled gray-brown patterns blending into sandy or leaf-littered habitats, provides effective against visual predators. Social interactions in A. fowleri are limited outside of breeding periods, with individuals generally solitary but forming loose aggregations at breeding sites without establishing long-term territories. Males engage in territorial calling during choruses to attract females, though this does not involve defended areas beyond the breeding season.

Conservation Status

Anaxyrus fowleri maintains a globally abundant population, classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its extensive range across eastern and numerous stable subpopulations in the core , where high abundance supports an estimated total of millions of adults. In peripheral regions such as the , however, populations have declined significantly since the 1990s, with multiple local extirpations documented along shorelines and an overall in Canadian portions estimated at only a few hundred breeding individuals across key sites. Regional trends vary markedly, with populations remaining stable and abundant in the Southeast, including , where the species is commonly observed in sandy coastal and inland habitats without evidence of widespread reduction. In contrast, northeastern populations are decreasing, exemplified by a 50-70% long-term decline over the past two centuries in and local extirpations in , driven by range-edge vulnerabilities. Monitoring efforts, including the IUCN's 2022 global assessment and state-level 2025 Wildlife Action Plan (SWAP) reports, confirm overall persistence in many historical sites, with approximately 80% occupancy in regions like , though with variable detection rates indicating localized losses in urbanizing areas. As of 2025, New York's Wildlife Action Plan reports stable populations in the state, aligning with core range trends, though peripheral declines persist. Demographic data from mark-recapture studies reveal typical adult densities of 1-5 individuals per in suitable habitats, with recruitment rates fluctuating based on the availability and quality of breeding ponds.

Threats and Conservation Measures

Habitat loss due to urban and coastal development poses the primary threat to Anaxyrus fowleri, particularly through the destruction of sandy dune and beach habitats essential for breeding and overwintering. In regions like the Great Lakes shoreline, extensive degradation from shoreline stabilization, recreational activities, and construction has reduced available habitat, with invasive plants such as common reed (Phragmites australis) further encroaching on open sandy areas. Road mortality exacerbates these pressures, as adults and juveniles frequently cross roads during breeding migrations and dispersal, leading to high vehicle-related fatalities in suburban and coastal zones. Additionally, the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been detected in northern populations, including in Ontario and Tennessee, potentially reducing tadpole foraging efficiency and survival, though infection levels often remain low without overt die-offs. Climate change contributes by altering precipitation and temperature patterns, with a 2025 study showing negative correlations between higher temperatures/precipitation and adult body size, suggesting exacerbated physiological stress that could compound drought effects in southern ranges. Other risks include contamination in breeding ponds, where runoff from agricultural and residential areas introduces toxins like organochlorides and pyrethroids that accumulate in tissues and impair development. Hybridization with the (Anaxyrus americanus) occurs where ranges overlap, potentially diluting genetic integrity and complicating identification in marginal habitats. , such as bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), also prey on tadpoles, intensifying competition and predation in shared wetlands. These factors have led to localized population declines in northern and coastal areas, though the species' broad distribution mitigates overall risk. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and restoration to counter these threats. In the United States, A. fowleri receives safeguards in national wildlife refuges like Cape May National Wildlife Refuge, where managed dunes and wetlands support breeding populations. It holds no federal endangered status due to its extensive range across eastern but is state-listed as endangered in , prompting habitat restoration initiatives such as maintaining early successional sand barrens and minimizing pesticide use in protected areas. In , the species is protected under the federal Species at Risk Act as endangered, with Ontario's recovery strategy emphasizing habitat enhancement, including the creation of artificial breeding ponds and public education campaigns to reduce disturbance from recreation and development. These measures, updated through ongoing monitoring as of 2019, aim to bolster reproduction in remnant populations along . Successes include population stabilization and localized rebounds, such as in New Jersey's coastal wetlands, where 2020s restoration projects have enhanced breeding sites and contributed to steady increases through reduced . Overall, targeted protections have prevented the need for broader federal intervention, supporting the ' resilience across its core range.

References

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  9. https://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com/amphibians/frogsandtoads/fowlers-toad/index.php
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  12. https://www.wildlife.nh.gov/wildlife-and-habitat/species-occurring-nh/fowlers-toad
  13. https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Anaxyrus/Anaxyrus-fowleri
  14. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S105579030200209X
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  31. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/fowler-toad-2010.html
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  43. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286910631_Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis_Detected_in_Fowler%27s_Toad_Anaxyrus_fowleri_Populations_in_Memphis_Tennessee_USA
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  48. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/recovery-strategies/fowlers-toad-2019.html
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