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Fuheng
View on WikipediaFuheng (Manchu: ᡶᡠᡥᡝᠩ, romanized: Fuheng; simplified Chinese: 傅恒; traditional Chinese: 傅恆; pinyin: Fùhéng; Burmese: ဖူဟင်း; 1720 – July 1770), courtesy name Chunhe (春和), was a Qing dynasty official from the Fuca clan of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner,[1] and was a younger brother of the Empress Xiaoxianchun. He served as a senior minister at the court of his brother-in-law, the Qianlong Emperor, from the 1750s to his death in 1770. He is best known for leading the Qing troops in the fourth and last invasion of Burma in the Sino-Burmese War.
Key Information
Prior to his appointment as the commander-in-chief of the Burma campaign, Fuheng was chief grand councilor to the emperor, and one of the emperor's most trusted advisers. Fuheng was one of the few senior officials that fully backed the Qianlong Emperor's decision to eliminate the Dzungars in the 1750s when most at the court thought war was too risky. His nephew Mingrui led the Burma campaign of 1767–1768.[2] His son Fuk'anggan was a senior general in the Qing military.
Fuheng was unsuccessful in the Burma campaign. In December 1769, he signed a truce with the Burmese, which the emperor did not accept. He died of malaria, which he contracted during his three-month invasion of Burma, when he got back to Beijing.[3]
Biography
[edit]Born into a distinguished family
[edit]Fuheng was born into a prestigious family. His ancestor Wangjinu (旺吉努) pledged allegiance to Nurhaci at the outset of his military campaigns, leading his clan in support. His great-grandfather Hashitu (哈什屯) served as a Grand Councillor during the reigns of the Taizong and Shizu emperors of the Qing dynasty,[4] rising to the highest policy-making body of the Qing court. His grandfather Mingsihan earned the favor of the Kangxi Emperor and was promoted to Minister of Revenue and Grand Councillor. He firmly supported the Emperor’s proposal to abolish the regional feudal domains, contributing significantly to the restoration and development of social production and the suppression of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories during Kangxi’s reign. He was highly praised by the Emperor. Fuheng’s uncles Maska, Maqi, and Mawu were all prominent figures during the Kangxi and Yongzheng reigns. His father, Li Rongbao, held the post of Commander-in-Chief of Chahar.[5] Fuheng’s elder sister was none other than Empress Xiaoxianchun.[6]
Campaign against Jinchuan
[edit]
At the time, the general Necin was leading the offensive against Jinchuan, but his efforts proved fruitless. In the ninth month, the Qianlong Emperor reassigned Fuheng to temporarily oversee the duties of the Governor-General of Sichuan and Shaanxi and to direct military operations. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed Grand Secretariat of the Hall of Preserving Harmony.[7] Four million taels of silver were allocated from the Ministry of Revenue and various provincial treasuries for military expenses, and an additional 100,000 taels were drawn from the imperial treasury for rewards. In the eleventh month, Fuheng set out. The Emperor hosted a farewell banquet at the Chonghua Palace, personally performed ritual offerings at the Tangzi Hall, and ordered the imperial princes and Grand Secretary Lai Bao to escort him to Liangxiang.[8]
Soon after, due to Fuheng’s swift march and strict discipline, the Emperor ordered a commendation and proposed promoting him to Grand Tutor to the Heir Apparent and further to Grand Guardian.[7] Fuheng declined, but the Emperor refused to accept his refusal.[9]
Previously, the tusi (native chieftain) of Lesser Jinchuan, Liang’erji, had feigned surrender and acted as a spy for Saruoben (莎羅奔). Zhang Guangsi, believing Wang Qiu, allowed Liang’erji to lead ethnic minority troops, and every movement by the Qing army was immediately known to the enemy. On his way, Fuheng submitted a memorial requesting the execution of Liang’erji and his associates. Upon nearing the front, he ordered Vice General Ma Liangzhu to summon Liang’erji under pretenses. When he arrived at Bangga Mountain, Liang’erji’s crimes were publicly denounced, and he was executed. The Qianlong Emperor praised Fuheng’s decisiveness and bestowed upon him the double-eyed peacock feather again, forbidding any refusal.[10]
In December, Fuheng arrived at Kasa and moved the camp to the old fortress, ordering General Ye Daxiong to observe the Jinchuan fortifications. In 1749, Fuheng submitted a memorial analyzing the reasons for previous defeats and proposed a multi-pronged offensive strategy.[11]
Although the Qianlong Emperor initially believed that Jinchuan was not a significant threat, upon learning of its formidable terrain, he ordered a withdrawal by imperial decree through Empress Dowager Xiaoshengxian. However, Fuheng was in the midst of capturing several fortresses with generals Ha Panlong and Ha Shangde. The Emperor, concerned about the harsh conditions, gifted Fuheng three catties of ginseng and repeatedly issued edicts recalling him. Nonetheless, in recognition of his merit, and on Empress Dowager Xiaoshengxian’s decree, Fuheng was ennobled as a First Class Duke Loyal and Brave, and was granted a bejeweled hat top and Four-Clawed Dragon Court Robe.[7] Fuheng firmly opposed the withdrawal and declined the honors, but the Emperor refused to relent.[12]
At this point, Fuheng and Commander-in-Chief Yue Zhongqi planned a deeper incursion. Saruoben sent emissaries to plead for surrender. Fuheng demanded Saruoben personally surrender, bound. Saruoben later dispatched Chuosijia and others to plead for mercy from Yue Zhongqi, who personally entered Leuwuwei and escorted Saruoben and his son Langka to Fuheng’s camp, where they formally surrendered.[13] Saruoben offered a Buddha statue and ten thousand taels of silver; Fuheng declined the silver. Saruoben then requested to use the silver to build a shrine for Fuheng.[14]
The next day, Fuheng led his troops back. The Qianlong Emperor issued a commendation edict, and following the precedent of Yangguli, awarded him two leopard-tail spears and two imperial bodyguards. In the third month, as the troops returned to the capital, the Emperor sent his eldest son Yonghuang and Prince Yu Guanglu to welcome him outside the city. Shortly afterward, the Emperor established an ancestral temple for the Fuca clan to honor Fuheng’s great-grandfather, grandfather, and father. He also granted Fuheng a mansion inside Dong’anmen.[15]
Pacification of the Dzungars
[edit]In 1754, a civil war broke out among the Dzungar tribes. The Qianlong Emperor intended to launch a military campaign and sought the opinions of his ministers; only Fuheng supported the plan. In the twentieth year (1755), the Qing army captured Ili and took Dawachi prisoner. The Qianlong Emperor issued an edict promoting Fuheng once again to First-Class Duke. Fuheng submitted a memorial in firm refusal, weeping as he did so, and the Emperor finally consented. Not long afterward, the Emperor had portraits of one hundred meritorious officials displayed in the Ziguang Pavilion; Fuheng’s portrait was placed in the foremost position.[16]
In 1756, General Celing was tasked with pursuing Amursana. The Qianlong Emperor ordered Fuheng to go out and inspect the army, traveling to Elinhabirga to assemble the Mongol taijis and oversee military organization. Shortly after Fuheng’s departure, a memorial arrived from Celing reporting that he had already led his troops deep into enemy territory. The Emperor then recalled Fuheng.[17]
Campaign against Burma
[edit]In 1768, General Mingrui was defeated in his campaign against Burma. In the second month, the Qianlong Emperor appointed Fuheng as Imperial Commissioner to lead the expedition, with Arigūn and Agui as Deputy Generals, and Shuhede as Associate Minister, to continue the war against Burma.[18]
In the following year, during the second lunar month, Fuheng set out with his troops and entered Yunnan in the third month. In the fourth month, he arrived at the border town Tengyue. Upon reaching the frontier, Fuheng observed that the area of Wengushan contained many towering trees, particularly Zhuangnan and Yehuai, which were ideal for shipbuilding. The nearby area of Niuniuba was cool and free of miasma, making it suitable for construction. He secretly ordered Fu Xian to lead 3,000 Qing troops and over 460 craftsmen from Huguang to begin building warships, while drafting a strategy to advance by both land and water directly toward the Burmese capital, Ava. The Qianlong Emperor highly approved of this plan.[19]
In August 1769, Fuheng departed from Tengyue and launched a surprise attack on Burma, winning initial victories.[20] By the October, the warships at Niuniuba were completed, and the Qing forces advanced by both land and water, routing the Burmese navy. In November, they captured the strategic military post of Xinjie, which had previously fallen to the Burmese. In the eleventh month, they attacked Laokuantun, a critical hub of north-south land and river traffic that was heavily fortified and difficult to capture. The Burmese had established strong wooden and river fortifications and fiercely resisted. The region was plagued by mist and high humidity, and the poor climate adversely affected the Qing troops, particularly the Manchu soldiers who were unaccustomed to such conditions. Many fell ill with tropical diseases.[21]
Originally numbering over 31,000 in both land and naval forces, the Qing army suffered heavy losses, with more than half perishing. Several key commanders—including Grain Transport Commissioner Fu Xian, General Wu Shisheng, Deputy General Arigūn, Vice Commander Yong Rui, and Commanders Wufu and Ye Xiangde—died of illness. Fuheng himself contracted a serious disease and became gravely ill. Upon learning of this, the Qianlong Emperor ordered Agui to assume military command and instructed Fuheng to return immediately to the capital.[22]
At the same time, the Burmese king and military leaders, fearing the might of the Qing army, expressed willingness to end the conflict. Seizing the opportunity, the Qianlong Emperor approved peace talks between the Qing forces and the Burmese.[23]
Family
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- Consort, of the Yehe-Nara clan (福晋 葉赫那拉氏):[24]
- Fuling'an, Knight Commandant of the Cloud (雲騎尉 福靈安; ?–1767), 1st son
- Fulong'an, Duke Zhongyong of the First Class (一等忠勇公 福隆安; 1746–1784), 2nd son; married Princess Hejia, the Qianlong Emperor's 4th daughter by Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui, and had issue (two sons)
- Fuk'anggan, Prince Jiayong of the Second Rank (嘉勇郡王 福康安; 1753–1796), 3rd son
- Concubine, of the Li clan (李氏):
- Fuchang'an, Marquis Chengjing (誠靖侯 福長安; 1760–1810), adopted son[25]
- Concubine, of the Sugiya clan (孙佳氏)
- Unknown:
- Lady Fuca (富察氏; ?–1813), 1st daughter
- Married Yongxing, Prince Cheng, the Qianlong Emperor's 11th son by Imperial Noble Consort Shujia, and had issue (two sons, two daughters)
- Lady Fuca (富察氏), 2nd daughter
- Married Chunying, Prince Rui, and had issue (two sons)
- Lady Fuca (富察氏; ?–1813), 1st daughter
In fiction and popular culture
[edit]- Portrayed by Joseph Lee in Take Care, Your Highness! (1985)
- Portrayed by Hung Tak-sing in The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty (1988)
- Portrayed by Zhang Wei in My Fair Princess (1998)
- Portrayed by Yang Junyi in Li Wei Resigns from Office (2005)
- Portrayed by Xing Hanqing in New My Fair Princess (2011)
- Portrayed by Xu Kai in Story of Yanxi Palace (2018)
- Portrayed by Jia Tinglong in Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace (2018)
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office.
- ^ Thant Myint-U (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps--Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6.
- ^ Charles Patterson Giersch (2006). Asian borderlands: the transformation of Qing China's Yunnan frontier. Harvard University Press. pp. 100–110. ISBN 0674021711.
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
米思翰，富察氏，滿洲鑲黃旗人。先世居沙濟。曾祖旺吉努，當太祖時，率族來歸，授牛錄額真。父哈什屯，事太宗，以侍衛襲管牛錄。擢禮部參政，改副理事官。討瓦爾喀，招明總兵沈志祥。從攻錦州，明總兵曹變蛟夜襲御營，先眾扞禦，被創，力戰卻之。順治初，授內大臣、議政大臣，世職屢進一等阿達哈哈番兼拖沙喇哈番。
- ^
Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
李榮保，襲世職，兼管牛錄，累遷至察哈爾總管，卒。乾隆二年，冊李榮保女為皇后，追封一等公。十三年，冊諡孝賢皇后，推恩先世，進封米思翰一等公。十四年，以李榮保子大學士傅恆經略金川功，敕建宗祠，祀哈什屯、米思翰、李榮保，並追諡李榮保曰莊愨。
- ^
Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
傅恆，字春和，富察氏，滿洲鑲黃旗人，孝賢純皇后弟也。
- ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference
清國史館傳稿，5730號was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
訥親既無功，九月，命傅恆暫管川陝總督，經略軍務。尋授保和殿大學士，發京師及諸行省滿、漢兵三萬五千，以部庫及諸行省銀四百萬供軍儲，又出內帑十萬備犒賞。十一月，師行，上詣堂子告察，遣皇子及大學士來保等送至良鄉。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
傅恆既行，上日降手詔褒勉。傅恆互道陝西，言驛政不修誤軍興，上命協辦大學士尚書尹繼善攝陝西總督，主饋運。入四川境，馬不給，上又命尹繼善往來川、陝督察。旋以傅恆師行甚速，紀律嚴明，命議敘，部議加太子太傅，特命加太保。固辭，不允，發京師及山西、湖北馬七千佐軍。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
初，小金川土舍良爾吉間其兄澤旺於莎羅奔，奪其印，即烝於嫂阿扣。莎羅奔之犯邊也，良爾吉實從之，後詐降為賊諜。張廣泗入奸民王秋言，使領蠻兵，我師舉動，賊輒知之。傅恆途中疏請誅良爾吉等，將至軍，使副將馬良柱招良爾吉來迎，至邦噶山，正其罪，並阿扣、王秋悉誅之。事聞，上褒傅恆明斷，命拜前賜雙眼孔雀翎，毋更固辭。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
十月，至卡撒，以屯軍地狹隘，與賊相望，且雜處番民市肆中，乃相度移舊壘前，令總兵冶大雄監營壘。十四年正月，上疏言：「臣至軍，察用兵始末：當紀山進討之始，馬良柱轉戰而前，逾沃日收小金川直抵丹噶，其鋒甚銳。彼時張廣泗若速進師，賊備未嚴，殄滅尚易；乃坐失事機，宋宗璋宿留於雜穀，許應虎敗衄於的郊，賊得盡據險要，增碉備禦。訥親初至，督戰甚急，任舉敗沒，銳挫氣索，軍無鬥志，一以軍事委張廣泗。廣泗又為奸人所愚，專主攻碉。先後殺傷數千人，匿不以聞。臣惟攻碉最為下策，槍砲不能洞堅壁，於賊無所傷。賊不過數人，自暗擊明，槍不虛發。是我惟攻石，而賊實攻人。賊於碉外為濠，兵不能越，賊伏其中，自下擊上。其碉銳立，高於浮屠，建作甚捷，數日可成，旋缺旋補。且眾心甚固，碉盡碎而不去，砲方過而復起。客主勞佚，形勢迥殊，攻一碉難於克一城。即臣所駐卡撒，左右山巔三百餘碉，計日以攻，非數年不能盡。且得一碉輒傷數十百人，得不償失。兵法，攻堅則瑕者堅，攻瑕則堅者瑕。惟使賊失所恃，我兵乃可用其所長。擬俟諸軍大集，分道而進。別選銳師，旁探間道，裹糧直入，逾碉勿攻，繞出其後。番眾不多，外備既密，內守必虛。我兵既自捷徑深入，守者各懷內顧，人無固志，均可不攻自潰。卡撒為進噶拉依正道，嶺高溝窄，臣當親任其難。黨壩隘險，亦幾同卡撒，酌益新軍。兩道並進，直搗巢穴，取其渠魁。期四月間奏捷。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
上以金川非大敵...
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
時傅恆及提督岳鍾琪決策深入，莎羅奔遣頭人乞降，傅恆令自縛詣軍門。莎羅奔復介綽斯甲等詣岳鍾琪乞貸死，鍾琪親入勒烏圍，挈莎羅奔及其子郎卡詣軍門。語詳鍾琪傳。傅恆遂受莎羅奔父子降，莎羅奔等焚香作樂，誓六事：無犯鄰比諸番，反其侵地，供役視諸土司，執獻諸酋抗我師者，還所掠內地民馬，納軍械槍砲，乃承製赦其罪。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
莎羅奔獻佛像一
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
翌日，傅恆率師還。上優詔嘉獎，命用揚古利故事，賜豹尾槍二桿、親軍二名。三月，師至京師，命皇長子及裕親王等郊迎。上御殿受賀，行飲至禮。傅恆疏辭四團龍補服，上命服以入朝，復命用額亦都、佟國維故事，建宗祠，祀曾祖哈什屯以下，並追予李榮保諡，賜第東安門內，以詩落其成。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
十九年，準噶爾內亂，諸部台吉多內附。上將用兵，諮廷臣，惟傅恆贊其議。二十年，師克伊犁，俘達瓦齊以歸，諭再封一等公，傅恆固辭，至泣下，乃允之。尋圖功臣像紫光閣，上親制贊，仍以為冠，舉蕭何不戰居首功為比。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
二十一年四月，將軍策楞追捕阿睦爾撒納未獲，上命傅恆出視師，赴額林哈畢爾噶，集蒙古諸台吉飭軍事。傅恆行日，策楞疏至，已率兵深入，復召傅恆還。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
三十四年二月，傅恆師行，發京師及滿、蒙兵一萬三千六百人從征，上御太和殿賜敕，賚御用甲冑。四月，至騰越，傅恆決策，師循戛鳩江而進，大兵出江西，取道猛拱、猛養，直搗木梳，水師沿江順流下，水陸相應。偏師出江東取猛密，夾擊老官屯。往歲以避瘴，九月後進兵，緬甸得為備。傅恆互議先數十日出不意，攻其未備，水師當具舟。上初命阿里袞造舟濟師，阿里袞等言崖險澗窄不宜舟，傍江亦無造舟所。上又命三泰、傅顯往視，言與阿里袞等同。及傅恆至軍，諮土司頭人，知蠻暮有山曰翁古多木，旁有地曰野牛壩，野人所居，涼爽無瘴。即地伐木造舟，野人樂受值，執役甚謹。傅恆即使傅顯佐蒞事。舟成，督滿、漢兵並從行奴僕，更番轉搬。又得茂隆廠附近砲工，令範銅為砲。狀聞，輒降旨嘉獎，為賦造舟行焉。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
三三十四年二月，傅恆師行，發京師及滿、蒙兵一萬三千六百人從征，上御太和殿賜敕，賚御用甲冑。四月，至騰越，傅恆決策，師循戛鳩江而進，大兵出江西，取道猛拱、猛養，直搗木梳，水師沿江順流下，水陸相應。偏師出江東取猛密，夾擊老官屯。往歲以避瘴，九月後進兵，緬甸得為備。傅恆互議先數十日出不意，攻其未備，水師當具舟。上初命阿里袞造舟濟師，阿里袞等言崖險澗窄不宜舟，傍江亦無造舟所。上又命三泰、傅顯往視，言與阿里袞等同。及傅恆至軍，諮土司頭人，知蠻暮有山曰翁古多木，旁有地曰野牛壩，野人所居，涼爽無瘴。即地伐木造舟，野人樂受值，執役甚謹。傅恆即使傅顯佐蒞事。舟成，督滿、漢兵並從行奴僕，更番轉搬。又得茂隆廠附近砲工，令範銅為砲。狀聞，輒降旨嘉獎，為賦造舟行焉。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
傅恆初議自將九千三百人渡戛鳩而西，師未集，七月，將四千人發騰越。上以經略自將師寡，促諸軍速集如初議。八月，傅恆自南蚌趨戛鳩。奏至，上方行圍木蘭，入圍獲狍，畀福隆安以賜傅恆。傅恆道南底壩至允帽，臨戛鳩江，時猛拱大頭人脫猛烏猛、頭人賀丙等，詣傅恆請降。師至，脫猛烏猛將夾江諸夷寨頭人來迎，與賀丙具舟。傅恆命分兵徐濟，夾江為寨猛拱后土司渾覺亦請降，獻馴象四。上賚三眼孔雀翎，傅恆疏辭。師復進，取猛養，破寨四，誅頭人拉匿拉賽。設台站，令瑚爾起以七百人駐守。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
遂至南董幹，攻南準寨，獲頭人木波猛等三十五人。進次暮臘，再進次新街。傅恆自渡戛鳩江，未嘗與緬甸兵戰，刈禾為糧，行二千里不血刃，而士馬觸暑雨多疾病。會阿桂將萬餘人自虎踞關出野牛壩，造舟畢成，徵廣東、福建水師亦至，乃合軍並進。哈國興將水師，阿桂、阿里袞將陸師，阿桂出江東，阿里袞出江西。緬兵壘金沙江兩岸，又以舟師扼江口。阿桂先與緬兵遇，麾步兵發銃矢，又以騎兵陷陣，緬兵潰。哈國興督舟師乘風蹴敵，緬兵舟相擊，死者數千。阿里袞亦破西岸緬兵，傅恆以所獲纛進。上復為賦詩，阿里袞感瘴而病，改將水師，旋卒。十一月，傅恆復進攻老官屯，老官屯在金沙江東，東猛密，西猛墅，北猛拱、猛養，南緬都阿瓦，為水陸通衢。緬兵伐木立寨甚固，哈國興督諸軍力攻，未即克。師破東南木寨，緬兵夜自水寨出，傅恆令海蘭察御之，又令伊勒圖督舟師掩擊，復獲船纛。緬兵潛至江岸築壘，又自林箐中出，海蘭察擊之，屢有斬馘。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
師久攻堅，士卒染瘴多物故，水陸軍三萬一千，至是僅存一萬三千。傅恆以入告，上命罷兵，召傅恆還京。傅恆俄亦病，阿桂以聞。上令即馳驛還，而以軍事付阿桂。
- ^ Zhao Erxun. – via Wikisource.
"會緬甸酋懵駁遣頭人諾爾塔齎蒲葉書乞罷兵，傅恆奏入，上許其行成。傅恆附疏言：「用兵之始，眾以為難。臣執意請行，負委任，請從重治罪。」上手詔謂：「用兵非得已，如以為非是，朕當首任其過。皇祖時，吳三桂請撤籓，諮於群臣，議撤者惟米思翰、明珠數人。及三桂反，眾請誅議撤諸臣，皇祖深闢其非。朕仰紹祖訓，傅恆此事，可援以相比。傅恆收猛拱，當賜三眼孔雀翎，疏辭，俟功成拜賜。今既未克賊巢，當繳進賜翎，以稱其請罪之意。」懵駁遣頭人詣軍獻方物。
- ^ First elder sister of Consort Shu
- ^ Fuheng's nephew by his eight brother
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Fuheng
View on GrokipediaEarly Life and Family Background
Birth and Ancestry
Fu Heng (傅恒), courtesy name Chunhe (春和), was born in 1720 into the Fuca (富察) clan, a prominent Manchu family registered under the Bordered Yellow Banner of the Eight Banners system.[3] As the tenth son of Li Rongbao (李榮保), who held the position of superintendent of Chahar, Fu Heng grew up in a household connected to imperial administration through military and regional governance roles.[4] His elder sister, Fuca Rongxiao (富察·容曉), became Empress Xiaoxianchun (孝賢純皇后), consort to the Qianlong Emperor, which elevated the family's status within the imperial court.[5] The Fuca clan's origins trace to early Manchu consolidation under the Aisin Gioro, with their progenitor Wangjinu (旺吉努) submitting his kin to Nurhaci during the initial phases of the Later Jin state's formation around 1616, securing hereditary privileges in the banner system.[6] This allegiance positioned the clan among the trusted bannermen who transitioned from Jurchen tribal structures to the Qing military aristocracy. Fu Heng's great-grandfather, Hashitun (哈什屯), advanced to minister of deliberation (議政大臣) under Emperors Taizong (Hong Taiji) and Shizu (Shunzhi), integrating the family into the nascent dynasty's core decision-making council during the conquest of China.[5] Such roles underscored the clan's martial and advisory contributions, fostering a legacy of loyalty that persisted through Fu Heng's generation.Early Education and Court Entry
Fu Heng, born in 1722 as the tenth son of Li Rongbao, a prominent Manchu official of the Fucha clan affiliated with the Bordered Yellow Banner, received a traditional education emphasizing Manchu language, riding, archery, and the Confucian classics, as was customary for children of banner elites preparing for imperial service.[4] His family's distinguished lineage, tracing back to early Jurchen allies of Nurhaci, positioned him within the Manchu administrative and military aristocracy.[4] Following the elevation of his elder sister to Empress Xiaoxianchun in 1738, Fu Heng benefited from familial proximity to the throne. In 1740, at age 18, he entered court service as a blue-feathered guard (lanling shiwei) in the Imperial Bodyguard (Qianlong 5th year), marking his initial formal role in the palace guard system responsible for ceremonial and protective duties.[4] This appointment leveraged the privileges extended to relatives of the empress, facilitating his integration into the inner circles of power.[7] By 1742, Fu Heng had advanced to a regular guard in the Imperial Bodyguard and was concurrently appointed deputy lieutenant general of the guards for the Chinese Bordered Yellow Banner, alongside roles in the Imperial Clan Court and as a member of an imperial household unit, reflecting early recognition of his capabilities amid rapid promotions.[4] These positions underscored the blend of hereditary status and merit that propelled his ascent in the Qing bureaucratic and military hierarchy.Rise in the Imperial Court
Initial Appointments and Relations with Qianlong
Fu Heng, a Manchu of the Fuca clan and younger brother of Qianlong's first empress, Xiaoxianchun, entered imperial service in 1740 at age approximately 20 as a blue-plume guard, a low-ranking position in the palace guard units responsible for the emperor's security.[8] His familial connection to the empress, who had risen to that position in 1738 after marrying Qianlong in 1734, facilitated swift advancement despite his youth and limited prior experience.[9] In 1742, Fu Heng was promoted to imperial bodyguard and concurrently appointed as a minister of the Imperial Household Department, tasked with overseeing the Yuanming Yuan (Old Summer Palace), an expansive imperial estate undergoing development under Qianlong's patronage. This assignment, granted at age 22, reflected the emperor's early trust in Fu Heng's administrative discretion, as managing the palace involved handling construction, finances, and daily operations amid the court's opulent expansions. Qianlong's favoritism toward Fu Heng stemmed from the empress's influence and the Fuca clan's loyalty, positioning him as a reliable inner-court figure amid potential factional tensions in the early reign.[10] By 1743, Fu Heng advanced to vice minister of the Board of Revenue, marking his transition from palace security to fiscal administration, where he handled revenue collection and expenditure oversight critical to sustaining military campaigns and court extravagance. His relations with Qianlong during this period were characterized by personal proximity and deference; the emperor reportedly permitted Fu Heng to ride horseback within the Forbidden City—a rare privilege underscoring intimate confidence not extended to most officials. This bond, rooted in kinship but reinforced by Fu Heng's demonstrated reliability, laid the foundation for his later elevation to the Grand Council following the empress's death in 1748 and the disgrace of rival minister Naper.[11]Administrative Ascendancy
Fuheng's administrative prominence began in earnest during the early years of the Qianlong Emperor's reign, following his initial court service as an imperial bodyguard and manager of the Summer Palace around 1742. By the 1750s, leveraging his familial ties as the brother of Empress Xiaoxianchun, he ascended to the elite ranks of central governance, securing appointment as a Grand Secretary (daxueshi) and member of the Grand Council (junjichu), the Qing dynasty's pivotal privy council responsible for drafting edicts, coordinating policy, and advising on both civil and military matters.[1] This body, formalized under Yongzheng but expanded under Qianlong, handled the empire's most sensitive administrative functions, including personnel appointments, fiscal oversight, and frontier management, with Fuheng emerging as one of its most influential voices amid a predominantly cautious bureaucracy.[9] Serving continuously in the Grand Council from approximately 1750 to 1768, Fuheng advised Qianlong on diverse administrative challenges, including the integration of conquered territories and the refinement of bureaucratic procedures. In 1757, as a grand minister of state (junji dachen), he directed the appointment of six officials, comprising translators and administrators, to enhance the handling of multilingual documents essential for empire-wide governance, reflecting his role in streamlining communication across linguistic divides in a multi-ethnic realm.[12] His tenure marked a period of consolidated Manchu influence in the council, where he often aligned with the emperor's assertive policies—such as the expansionist campaigns in the northwest—against widespread official reservations, thereby bolstering central authority over provincial administrations. This alignment, rooted in personal trust rather than mere kinship, elevated Fuheng's stature, positioning him as a counterweight to factional inertia and enabling decisive interventions in policy formulation.[10] By the mid-1760s, Fuheng had risen to lead the Grand Council, succeeding figures like Necin, and assumed oversight of key departments such as the Imperial Household, where he managed palace finances and ceremonial protocols with meticulous efficiency. His administrative acumen was evident in efforts to renovate cultural institutions, including the 1768 refurbishment of the Temple of Confucius at the Guozijian under his supervision as Grand Secretary, underscoring a commitment to Confucian orthodoxy amid imperial expansion.[13] These roles solidified his ascendancy, transforming him from a court insider into a linchpin of Qianlong's governance apparatus, though his influence increasingly intertwined with military imperatives by the late 1760s.[9]Military Campaigns
Suppression of Jinchuan Rebellions
The First Jinchuan Rebellion erupted in 1747 in the rugged mountainous region of western Sichuan, where Tibetan-Qiang chieftains of the Lesser Jinchuan (Xiao Jinchuan) resisted Qing authority amid disputes over land and tribute obligations.[14] Initially, the Qianlong Emperor appointed veteran commander Zhang Guangsi to lead Qing forces, comprising Manchu bannermen and Han Green Standard troops, but the campaign stalled due to logistical challenges in the terrain and allegations of corruption within the general staff.[14] By early 1749, Zhang was executed for treason and embezzlement, prompting Qianlong to elevate Fu Heng, then a junior grand councillor and his brother-in-law through marriage to a Fucha clan consort, as the new commander despite his limited prior military experience.[14][15] Fu Heng arrived at the front in 1749 with reinforcements, emphasizing disciplined coordination between elite bannermen for assaults and Green Standard units for support, while improving supply lines through Sichuan's difficult passes.[16] He focused on besieging fortified towers and monasteries that served as rebel strongholds, such as those at Luobowa Mountain, where Qing artillery and infantry overcame defensive advantages through persistent sieges rather than direct assaults.[17] Assisted by generals including Yue Zhongqi's successors and local auxiliaries, Fu Heng's forces captured key positions, leading to the surrender of rebel leaders like the monk Sangcuo by mid-1749, effectively pacifying the region.[14] The campaign concluded with Qing imposition of direct administration, relocation of some chieftains, and integration of Jinchuan under tusi hereditary rule subordinated to imperial oversight, though at significant cost exceeding 70 million taels in expenditures.[16] Qianlong credited Fu Heng with the victory, promoting him to higher ranks and commemorating the success in imperial inscriptions, portraying it as a triumph of strategic resolve over initial setbacks.[17] However, the suppression highlighted vulnerabilities in Qing frontier warfare, including high casualties from disease and attrition—estimated at over 50,000 troops deployed with substantial losses—and reliance on personal imperial favor for command appointments.[15] Fu Heng's role solidified his position as a trusted military administrator, though later campaigns revealed ongoing tensions in the area that resurfaced in the 1770s.[16]Pacification of the Dzungar Khanate
In 1754, internal strife plagued the Dzungar Khanate following the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745, as Dawaci overthrew the designated heir Tsewang Dorji Namjal and appealed to the Qing for support against rivals. Qianlong Emperor, seeking to exploit the disarray, consulted his officials on launching a campaign to subdue the Dzungars, who had long threatened Qing borders. While many cautioned against the endeavor due to the remote terrain and supply difficulties across the Gobi Desert, Fu Heng alone urged immediate and total conquest, arguing that hesitation would allow the Dzungars to regroup. His resolute stance influenced Qianlong's decision to proceed, marking Fu Heng's emergence as a key strategic advisor in frontier affairs.[18] Fu Heng was appointed as the supervising Grand Councilor for the pacification efforts, providing overall direction from Beijing while delegating field operations to generals such as Bandi and later Agui and Zhaohui. The initial invasion in spring 1755 saw Qing banner troops advance in multiple columns, culminating in the capture of the Dzungar capital at Ili (Ghulja) on September 21, where Dawaci surrendered after defeats at Ubashi Nor and other sites. Fu Heng coordinated logistics, reinforcements, and political integration, ensuring the campaign's momentum despite harsh conditions that claimed thousands of lives from disease and exposure. By late 1755, much of Dzungaria submitted, but the defection and rebellion of Amursana in 1756 necessitated renewed offensives. Qing forces pursued Amursana through 1757, defeating his coalitions of Dzungars, Kazakhs, and Uyghurs, forcing him to flee to Russian territory where he died in exile. Fu Heng's administrative oversight facilitated the resettlement of loyal Mongols and Han colonists, transforming the region into the Qing province of Xinjiang.[19] Post-conquest policies under Fu Heng's guidance emphasized demographic control, including the encouragement of migration from other Mongol tribes and the suppression of Dzungar remnants, which drastically reduced the native Oirat population through warfare, famine, and imperial edicts targeting rebels. In recognition of his contributions, Qianlong elevated Fu Heng to the rank of Duke of the First Class. Fu Heng later served as chief editor of the official Pingding Zhunga'er fanglüe (Records of the Pacification of the Dzungars), completed in 1770, a multi-volume compendium detailing military engagements, imperial rescripts, maps of Xinjiang, and administrative reforms. Spanning front matter, main narratives, and appendices, the work not only chronicled the 1755–1759 operations but also justified the campaign as a civilizing mission, embedding it within Qianlong's Ten Great Campaigns.[20][19]Sino-Burmese War and Its Outcomes
Following the deaths of previous commanders and the setbacks in earlier invasions during the Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769), Fuheng was appointed commander-in-chief of the Qing expeditionary forces against Burma in 1768.[9] His leadership marked the fourth and final major Qing incursion, launched in late 1769 with a force emphasizing secured supply lines and coordinated advances.[21] The campaign unfolded over three months, during which Qing troops penetrated deeper into Burmese territory than prior efforts but encountered formidable obstacles, including rugged terrain, scorched-earth tactics by Burmese forces, and rampant tropical diseases such as malaria.[22] Fuheng, recognizing the unsustainable losses from illness and logistics, authorized a strategic withdrawal to minimize further casualties, averting the total annihilation suffered by earlier armies.[22] In December 1769, he negotiated and signed a truce with Burmese representatives, establishing a de facto border along the Tengchong-Tengyue line, though Qianlong Emperor rejected the agreement, insisting on unconditional submission.[21] Fuheng contracted malaria during the expedition and succumbed to the disease in July 1770 after returning to Beijing.[21] The broader war outcomes reflected a disguised defeat for the Qing: no territorial conquests were achieved, Burma retained independence under the Konbaung Dynasty, and nominal tributary relations resumed only sporadically thereafter, with the first Burmese mission to Beijing occurring in 1784.[22] Despite Qianlong's inclusion of the campaign among his Ten Great Campaigns as a triumph, it incurred massive human and financial tolls—estimated at over 70,000 Qing soldier deaths across all invasions and 9.8 million taels in expenditures—exposing limitations in Qing overextension into Southeast Asian jungles and prompting a reevaluation of frontier ambitions.[22] Fuheng's prudent retreat preserved more troops than predecessors, but the endeavor underscored the empire's vulnerabilities to environmental and logistical challenges rather than military prowess.[9]Political and Administrative Roles
Leadership in the Grand Council
Fu Heng, leveraging his position as the younger brother of the Qianlong Emperor's first empress, ascended to the Grand Council (Junjichu) in 1748 after swift promotions from lower bureaucratic roles, marking his entry into the Qing dynasty's highest deliberative body for policy and military affairs.[1] His appointment reflected imperial trust, enabling him to process palace memorials (zouzhe) and advise on critical state matters, including the coordination of administrative and fiscal policies.[9] As a Manchu bannerman, Fu Heng helped maintain ethnic balance in the council's leadership, succeeding figures like Necin and ensuring continuity in Manchu oversight of central governance.[9] Under Fu Heng's influence, the Grand Council streamlined decision-making by handling urgent edicts and secret military dispatches, with him often leading night-long sessions to draft responses and imperial rescripts.[23] In 1757, as a grand minister of state (junji dachen), he directed the appointment of translation officials to manage multilingual documents, enhancing the council's capacity for overseeing frontier campaigns and inner Asian diplomacy.[12] His approach prioritized diligence and propriety, as evidenced by his refusal of undue honors while punctiliously executing duties, which bolstered the council's role as the emperor's privy advisory organ over traditional Six Ministries.[4] Fu Heng's tenure solidified the Grand Council's evolution from a military-focused entity into a comprehensive privy council, where he advocated for decisive actions like the 1750s Dzungar conquests, countering court hesitancy with empirical assessments of strategic gains.[23] By 1768, he had assumed formal leadership, coordinating multi-ethnic officials amid growing administrative demands, though his health declined amid ongoing Burma frontier operations supervised from Beijing.[9] This period underscored his skill in employing capable subordinates and mediating factional tensions, contributing to the council's efficiency until his death in 1770.[24]Other Contributions to Governance
Fu Heng demonstrated administrative acumen in fiscal management as Vice Minister of the Board of Revenue (Hubu you shilang), a position he assumed in 1743 at age 21, where he oversaw aspects of state finances including revenue collection and expenditure during the early Qianlong era's economic expansion.[25] His tenure emphasized prudent resource allocation, contributing to the stability of the empire's budget amid growing military and infrastructural demands, though specific policy innovations attributable to him remain undocumented in primary records.[25] In 1751, Fu Heng led the compilation of the Huang Qing Zhi Gong Tu (Illustrated Tribute Bearers of the Imperial Qing), a comprehensive atlas commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor depicting the attire, features, and customs of officials and envoys from China's provinces, frontier regions, and tributary states, spanning over 100 illustrations to symbolize imperial harmony and the integration of diverse peoples under Manchu rule.[26] This project, directed by Fu Heng on behalf of the court, served governance by visually propagating the Qing's universal sovereignty and "inner-outer as one" (zhongwai yijia) doctrine, countering potential ethnic divisions and legitimizing expansionist policies through ethnographic documentation rather than mere conquest narratives.[27] Fu Heng's concurrent service in the Board of Personnel (Libu) further supported bureaucratic governance by influencing civil service evaluations and promotions, prioritizing competence and loyalty in an era when the Grand Council's ad hoc nature risked favoritism; his reputation for personal integrity helped sustain merit-based elements within the Manchu-dominated hierarchy.[28] These roles underscored his utility in bridging military priorities with civilian administration, though critics later noted the system's inherent nepotism limited broader reforms.[28]Death, Legacy, and Assessments
Final Years and Demise
Fu Heng returned to Beijing in early 1770 after leading the Qing expedition into Burma, where tropical diseases had decimated his forces during the rainy season advance.[29] He had contracted malaria amid the campaign's logistical failures and high casualties from illness, which compelled a withdrawal despite initial gains.[29] Weakened by the fever, Fu Heng petitioned the Qianlong Emperor for leniency regarding the expedition's inconclusive results, emphasizing environmental hardships over strategic errors. The emperor, though critical of the army's performance, accepted the report without severe reprisal, allowing Fu Heng to retain his positions amid his deteriorating health.[9] Fu Heng died of malaria complications on July 13, 1770, at age 49, shortly after his arrival in the capital. Qianlong honored him with a state funeral, personally overseeing rites and bestowing the posthumous title Wenzhong (文忠), denoting scholarly merit and steadfast service. His demise marked the end of a favored courtier's career, with no indications of disgrace in official annals, though the Burma venture's costs—over 50,000 troops lost primarily to disease—highlighted limits to Qing expansionism.[9]Achievements and Strategic Successes
Fu Heng demonstrated strategic foresight by advocating the complete elimination of the Dzungar Khanate in the 1750s, at a time when most senior officials opposed the Qianlong Emperor's aggressive policy due to anticipated costs and risks. His support proved pivotal, enabling the Qing campaigns from 1755 to 1759 that annihilated Dzungar resistance, annexed the vast Xinjiang region—spanning approximately 1.5 million square kilometers—and incorporated diverse Mongol, Kazakh, and Uyghur populations into the empire, thereby securing the northwest frontier against Russian and other threats.[30][31] In the Great Jinchuan campaign of 1748, Fu Heng, acting as the Sichuan-Shaanxi Governor-General, personally led Qing forces to subdue the Tibetan Buddhist chieftain Sha Luo Ben and his son, capturing key strongholds after prolonged sieges and integrating the Jinchuan territories into direct imperial administration, which stabilized the southwestern highlands and prevented further ethnic unrest.[31] These military successes, combined with Fu Heng's oversight in compiling official campaign records such as the Pingding Zhun ge er fang lue, contributed substantially to the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated "Ten Great Campaigns," enhancing Qing prestige and territorial integrity through decisive action over appeasement.[31]Criticisms, Failures, and Controversies
Fu Heng's oversight of the final phase of the Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769) represented a significant military failure for the Qing dynasty, resulting in heavy casualties without strategic gains. Commanding an army of approximately 50,000 troops mobilized from multiple provinces, Fu Heng invaded Burmese territory in October 1769 via the northern route through Yunnan, aiming to avenge prior defeats and subdue the Konbaung Dynasty. However, the expedition encountered insurmountable challenges from rugged terrain, inadequate supply lines, and endemic tropical diseases such as malaria and dysentery, which killed far more soldiers than combat—estimates suggest over 70% of the force perished from illness alone.[29] The campaign's ineffective execution drew retrospective criticism for poor timing and planning, as the invasion coincided with the peak of Burma's rainy and epidemic seasons, amplifying logistical breakdowns despite Fu Heng's prior analysis of earlier invasions' shortcomings. Burmese forces, employing guerrilla tactics under King Hsinbyushin, avoided direct confrontations while exploiting the Qing's vulnerabilities, leading to a stalemate. On December 22, 1769, Fu Heng negotiated a truce with Burmese envoys, allowing Qing withdrawal in exchange for nominal Burmese submission, though this accord was initially repudiated by the Qianlong Emperor as insufficiently triumphant.[29][32] Historians characterize the outcome as a "disguised defeat," wherein the Qing claimed victory to preserve imperial prestige—Qianlong incorporated it into his vaunted "Ten Great Campaigns" as the tenth martial feat—but failed to annex territory, install a puppet regime, or neutralize the Burmese threat, effectively marking the limits of Qing expansionism in Southeast Asia. Fu Heng's role amplified scrutiny, as his prior successes in Jinchuan and Dzungar campaigns raised expectations; detractors, including later Qing officials, faulted him for overreliance on bannermen unadapted to jungle warfare and underestimation of environmental factors.[29][33] The emperor's insistence on portraying the war as resolved favorably masked underlying strategic overreach, contributing to long-term resource strain on the dynasty.[29]Family and Descendants
Immediate Family
Fu Heng's principal consort hailed from the Yehe Nara clan, a branch linked to the imperial lineage. He also took secondary consorts, including one surnamed Li.[4] He had four sons and two daughters.[34] The sons were Ful Ling'an (the eldest, died 1767), Fulong'an (born 1746, died 1784), Fu Chang'an, and Fuk'anggan (born 1754, died 1796).[4] [35] The daughters included one named Danxiang and another of the Fuca clan, the latter of whom married Chunying, the Prince Rui of the second rank.[4]Notable Offspring and Lineage
Fu Heng fathered four sons and two daughters, primarily with his principal consort from the Yehe Nara clan. The sons included Fuling'an (the eldest), Fulong'an (born 1746, died 1784), Fuk'anggan (born 1754, died 1796), and Fu Chang'an (died 1806).[36][37] The daughters married into imperial royalty: one became the primary consort of Yongcheng, the Chengzhe Qinwang (eleventh son of the Qianlong Emperor), and the other the primary consort of Mian Yi of the Ruizhong Qinwang lineage.[37] Among these, Fuk'anggan emerged as the most distinguished offspring, inheriting his father's military prowess and rising to high command. Appointed as a general early in his career, he suppressed the Lin Shuangwen rebellion in Taiwan in 1787–1788, led campaigns against the Gurkhas in 1791–1792, and participated in the invasion of Vietnam in 1788–1789, earning multiple hereditary titles including Duke of the First Class and commendations for strategic successes.[36][38] His rapid promotions and favor from the Qianlong Emperor fueled unsubstantiated rumors of illegitimacy, though official records consistently identify him as Fu Heng's legitimate son, with no empirical evidence supporting alternative parentage.[39][40] Fulong'an served in administrative roles, including as a provincial official, but died relatively young without achieving equivalent military renown.[36] Fu Chang'an pursued a military path, commanding forces in the Sino-Nepalese War of 1791–1792 alongside his brother, yet faced later accusations of corruption and mismanagement, leading to demotion.[36] Fuling'an held lesser bureaucratic positions, contributing to the family's administrative influence but lacking prominent exploits. The lineage through these sons perpetuated the Fuca clan's noble status into the early 19th century, though it declined amid broader Manchu elite attrition, with no subsequent descendants reaching the heights of Fu Heng or Fuk'anggan.[36]
Fu Heng's descendants maintained ties to imperial service, but the family's prominence waned after the Jiaqing era, exemplifying the transient nature of Qing bureaucratic dynasties despite initial favor.[36]