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Salix caprea
Salix caprea
Salix caprea
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Salix caprea
Goat willow male catkins
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Salicaceae
Genus: Salix
Species:
S. caprea
Binomial name
Salix caprea
Distribution map
Synonyms[2]
List
    • Capraea vulgaris Opiz
    • Nectopix caprea (L.) Raf.
    • Salix aurigerana Lapeyr.
    • Salix bakko Kimura
    • Salix caprea f. elongata (Nakai) Kitag.
    • Salix caprea var. ishidoyana (Nakai) M.Kim
    • Salix caprea var. lanatifolia Björnstr.
    • Salix caprea var. pendula T.Lang
    • Salix coaetanea (Hartm.) Flod.
    • Salix hallaisanensis H.Lév.
    • Salix hultenii Flod.
    • Salix ishidoyana Nakai
    • Salix lanata Vill.
    • Salix sphacelata Sm.
    • Salix tomentosa var. androgyna Ser.
    • Salix tomentosa var. macrophylla Ser.
    • Salix tomentosa var. rotundifolia Ser.
    • Salix tomentosa var. tenuifolia Ser.
    • Salix tomentosa var. ternata Ser.

Salix caprea, known as goat willow, pussy willow or great sallow, is a common species of willow native to Europe and western and central Asia.[3]

Description

[edit]

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree, reaching a height of 8–10 m (26–33 ft), rarely to 13 m.

The leaves are 3–12 cm long and from 2–8 cm wide, broader than most other willows.

The flowers are soft silky, and silvery 3-7-cm-long catkins are produced in early spring before the new leaves appear; the male and female catkins are on different plants (dioecious). The male catkins mature yellow at pollen release, the female catkins mature pale green.

female and male catkins of Salix caprea
Female catkins
Male catkins

The fruit is a small capsule 5–10 mm long containing numerous minute seeds embedded in fine, cottony hairs. The seeds are very small (about 0.2 mm) with the fine hairs aiding dispersal; they require bare soil to germinate.[3][4]

The two varieties are:[3]

  • S. c. var. caprea - lowland regions throughout the range, leaves thinly hairy above, densely hairy below, 5–12 cm long, stipules persistent until autumn
  • S. c. var. sphacelata (Sm.) Wahlenb. (syn. S. caprea var. coaetanea Hartm.; S. coaetanea (Hartm.) Floderus) - high altitudes in the mountains of central and northern Europe (Alps, Carpathians, Scotland, Scandinavia), leaves densely silky-hairy on both sides, 3–7 cm long, stipules early deciduous. In western Norway there are trees of S. c. var 'Sphacelata' that are 18–20 meters tall and have mostly single trunks.

Name

[edit]

The Latin specific epithet caprea means "goat".[5] This, and the common name goat willow, probably derive from the first known illustration of the species in Hieronymus Bock's 1546 Herbal, where the plant is shown being browsed by a goat. The species was historically also widely used as a browse for goats, to which Bock's illustration may refer.[6]

Ecology

[edit]

S. caprea occurs both in wet/damp environments, such as riverbanks and lake shores, and in drier sites, wherever bare soil becomes available due to ground disturbance.[3]

Hybrids with several other willow species are common, notably with Salix cinerea (S. × reichardtii), Salix aurita (S. × multinervis), Salix viminalis (S. × smithiana), and Salix purpurea (S. × sordida). Populations of S. caprea often show hybrid introgression.[3][4]

Unlike almost all other willows, pure specimens do not take root readily from cuttings; if a willow resembling the species does root easily, it is probably a hybrid with another species of willow.[4]

The leaves are used as a food resource by several species of Lepidoptera, and are also commonly eaten by browsing mammals. Willows are very susceptible to gall inducers, and the midge Rhabdophaga rosaria forms the camellia gall on S. caprea.[7]

Cultivation and uses

[edit]
See also: Pussy willow
A willow flute

A small number of cultivars have been selected for garden use. The most common is S. caprea 'Kilmarnock', discovered by James Smith, with stiffly pendulous shoots forming a mop-head; it is a male clone. A similar female clone is S. caprea 'Weeping Sally'. As they do not form a leader, they are grafted on erect stems of other willows; the height of these cultivars is determined by the height at which the graft is made.[4] Plants can also be grown from greenwood cuttings, which make attractive creeping mounds. Hardwood cuttings are often difficult to root.

Both tannin and salicin can be extracted from goat willow bark. The tree is not considered a good source of timber, as its wood is both brittle and known to crackle violently if burned.

As with the closely related Salix discolor (American pussy willow), it is also often grown for cut flowers. See Pussy willow for further cultural information, which applies to both species.

In North Europe it has been fairly common to make willow flutes from goat willow cuttings.

In Germany, Hungary, north of Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine and many parts of Finland, the just-opened catkins are used like the olive branches on Palm Sunday.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Salix caprea

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Salix caprea, commonly known as goat willow or pussy willow, is a deciduous shrub or small tree in the Salicaceae family, typically growing 4–8 meters (13–26 ft) tall with a rounded crown and oval to elliptic leaves that measure 5–13 cm long and are covered in silky hairs when young. It is dioecious, producing separate male and female catkins in early spring before the leaves emerge, with male catkins being silvery-gray and fuzzy, often prized for their ornamental "pussy" appearance, while female catkins are greenish and smaller. Native to —from southern and the southward to eastern and across to western —this thrives in a variety of moist habitats including woodlands, riverbanks, swamps, hedgerows, and disturbed areas, often acting as a pioneer plant in and efforts. It prefers full sun to partial shade and tolerates wet, well-drained soils but is sensitive to prolonged waterlogging or high acidity. Ecologically, S. caprea supports biodiversity by providing early-season nectar for pollinating insects and habitat for wildlife, with its lightweight seeds dispersed by wind and water; however, it faces threats from habitat fragmentation, climate change, and invasive in parts of its range. In cultivation, Salix caprea is valued for its winter interest, rapid growth, and adaptability, commonly used in hedges, windbreaks, and as an ornamental in gardens across USDA hardiness zones 4–8, where it can be coppiced for basketry or production. It has been introduced and naturalized in eastern , including parts of , though it remains non-native there.

Taxonomy

Etymology and nomenclature

The genus name Salix is derived from the Latin word salix, the classical term for willow trees, a usage documented in ancient Roman texts and retained in modern botanical nomenclature. The specific epithet caprea originates from the Latin caprea, meaning "she-goat" or "female goat," an allusion to the plant's foliage being a preferred browse for goats in pastoral regions of Europe. This binomial was formally established by Carl Linnaeus in his seminal work Species Plantarum (volume 2, page 1020), published in 1753, where Salix caprea was described as a distinct species within the willow genus. Common English names for Salix caprea include , reflecting the etymological link to goats; , a reference to the soft, fuzzy appearance of its early-spring catkins resembling ; and great sallow, distinguishing it from smaller willow . Regionally, variations emphasize similar traits: in German, it is known as Salweide (willow sallow) or Ziegenweide (goat willow), the latter echoing 16th-century herbalist Bock's 1539 illustration and naming in Kreütter Buch as a goat-favored plant. In French, common designations are saule marsault (from marsus, evoking marshy habitats, though not strictly etymological) or saule des chèvres (), aligning with the Latin root. These names highlight the species' ecological associations and its prominence in European folk botany predating Linnaean classification.

Classification and varieties

Salix caprea belongs to the family , which includes the Salix comprising approximately of trees and shrubs primarily distributed in temperate and regions. Within the Salix, S. caprea is classified in section Capreae, a group characterized by with catkins appearing before expansion and leaves. Two varieties of Salix caprea are recognized based on morphological and ecological adaptations. Salix caprea var. caprea is the typical lowland form, featuring broader leaves (5–12 cm long, 2.5–8 cm wide) and occurring in regions up to moderate elevations. In contrast, Salix caprea var. sphacelata represents the alpine form, with narrower leaves (3–7 cm long) and adaptations for higher elevation environments, capable of reaching heights up to 18–20 m, with a more tree-like habit. The recognition of these varieties is not universal; for example, Plants of the World Online treats Salix caprea without infraspecific taxa. Salix caprea readily forms hybrids with other willow , contributing to complex genetic interactions within the . Notable examples include S. × reichardtii (with S. cinerea), which exhibits intermediate leaf morphology, narrower than S. caprea but less densely haired, and hybrids with S. aurita, often found in disturbed habitats. Genetic studies indicate that these hybrids facilitate and , with genome-wide markers like DArTseq enabling detection of hybrid zones and revealing significant hybridization involving S. caprea and related such as S. cinerea. Phylogenetic analyses based on have positioned S. caprea within the diverse of Eurasian willows (subgenera Chamaetia and Vetrix), highlighting its divergence alongside other temperate through RAD sequencing of over ,000 SNPs across 35 taxa, which underscores adaptive radiations in lineages.

Description

Physical characteristics

Salix caprea is a or small tree that typically reaches a of 4–10 m (13–33 ft), though it can occasionally grow up to 15 m (49 ft), forming a bushy crown with multiple stems or a single trunk. The bark on young branches is smooth and gray, becoming fissured and gray-brown with diamond-shaped cracks as the plant ages. The leaves are alternate, simple, and elliptic to ovate-oblong in shape, measuring 5–13 cm long and 2.5–8 cm wide, with a rounded to cuneate base and acute to acuminate apex. They are dark green and hairless or slightly glossy above, with a dense covering of gray, silky hairs (tomentose) on the underside, and margins that are irregularly dentate or crenate. In autumn, the leaves turn variable shades of greenish-yellow before dropping. Variations in leaf shape, such as more lanceolate forms, occur among different varieties. As a dioecious species, Salix caprea produces separate catkins that emerge in early spring before the leaves. catkins are to subglobose, 1.5–5 cm long and 1.5–3 cm wide, initially gray and silky-hairy, turning golden-yellow upon , with each flower featuring two stamens. Female catkins are cylindrical, 2–6.4 cm long and up to 2.5 cm wide, pale green, and consist of single pistils with narrowly conical ovaries. The fruits are dehiscent capsules, ovoid to conical and 5–12 long, that split into two to four valves to numerous small, minute embedded in cottony hairs for dispersal.

Reproduction

Salix caprea exhibits dioecious , with separate individuals producing catkins in early spring. Flowering typically occurs from March to April in , preceding leaf emergence and synchronizing with and opportunities. This positions the as an early and source for pollinators in temperate ecosystems. Pollination in S. caprea is primarily entomophilous, involving diurnal bees and nocturnal moths, though wind also plays a significant role, particularly when insect activity is limited. Male catkins release copious pollen, which is transferred via these vectors to female catkins; studies show insects contribute more effectively to seed set than wind alone under varying mate availability conditions. The mixed strategy enhances reproductive success in diverse environmental contexts. Following pollination, female catkins develop into capsules that dehisce 3–8 weeks later, typically in May to , releasing numerous small adorned with pappus-like hairs for dispersal. These hairs facilitate long-distance , with dispersal distances reaching 380 m downhill in some landscapes. Seed viability is brief, lasting only days to weeks, necessitating rapid for establishment. In addition to sexual reproduction, S. caprea propagates vegetatively through rooting of cuttings or branches that contact the , leading to the formation of clonal stands in natural settings. This capability supports persistence in disturbed habitats where seedling establishment may be challenging.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Salix caprea is native to a broad expanse across and western and central Asia. In , its range extends from the and in the west to Russia in the east, and from southern Norway and Fennoscandia in the north to eastern Spain and the Mediterranean region in the south. The species reaches its northern limit around 70°N in Fennoscandia and Siberia, thriving in cool temperate and boreal zones. In Asia, it is distributed from Turkey and northern Iran eastward to central regions, including Siberia and extending eastward to parts of China, though it is less common in higher elevations of the Himalayas. The species has been introduced and naturalized outside its native range, primarily as an ornamental or for basketry. In North America, it is established in parts of eastern Canada, including New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Ontario, as well as in the northeastern and mid-Atlantic United States, such as Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania, often spreading via cultivation and vegetative propagation. In New Zealand, S. caprea was introduced around 1925 and has become established along streams and in damp places, particularly in the North Island, escaping from plantings. Historically, Salix caprea survived the in multiple intermediate-latitude refugia across , with evidence from macroscopic charcoal remains dated to approximately 23,000 years in indicating persistent populations during the Pleistocene. Post-glacial recolonization occurred rapidly, facilitated by wind-dispersed seeds and open landscapes, with the species reaching southern by around 16,000 years ; records, though not species-specific, support widespread expansion from refugia during this period. This migration reflects high dispersal and lack of strong phylogeographic in modern populations. Salix caprea occupies temperate to zones within its range, from to montane elevations up to approximately 2,000 m, adapting to a variety of conditions while preferring moist environments.

Habitat preferences

Salix caprea thrives in a variety of soil types, preferring moist, nutrient-rich, and substrates but demonstrating high tolerance for dry, disturbed, or poor soils, including those with neutral to alkaline . It avoids continuously saturated soils, favoring well-drained conditions even in wetter environments. As a , S. caprea commonly colonizes riparian zones, wetlands, open woodlands, heaths, and roadsides, where it plays a key in early succession by stabilizing eroding banks through its extensive, . It tolerates intermittent flooding and mesic to moist conditions but is sensitive to prolonged submersion. The species prefers full sun to partial shade, exhibiting low and favoring open, disturbed areas for establishment. It is cold-hardy to USDA zone 4 and demonstrates frost tolerance in its buds, enabling early flowering in cool temperate and boreal climates across its native range.

Ecology

Biotic interactions

Salix caprea experiences significant herbivory from both mammals and insects. Browsing mammals such as and deer frequently consume its leaves and twigs, with the species' common name "goat willow" reflecting its palatability to ; , in particular, select S. caprea for browsing in forest understories, influencing its growth form and population dynamics. Insect herbivory includes larvae of various species, notably those in the subfamily (e.g., grayling butterflies), which feed on the foliage, contributing to defoliation in natural stands. Additionally, the gall midge Rhabdophaga rosaria induces rosette galls, known as "willow roses," on shoot tips of S. caprea, with galls reaching up to 8 cm in diameter and altering plant architecture by stimulating abnormal bud proliferation. Pollination in S. caprea is primarily anemophilous (wind-pollinated), but entomophilous vectors play a complementary role, particularly bees visiting male catkins for early-season nectar and pollen. Diurnal bees (e.g., species in Andrenidae) and nocturnal moths contribute to pollen transfer, compensating for variable wind conditions and enhancing seed set. Seed dispersal is mainly by wind, aided by the cottony hairs on seeds that enable long-distance anemochory, with studies showing dispersal distances exceeding 100 m in open habitats. S. caprea forms mutualistic symbioses that support acquisition in nutrient-poor soils. Members of the , including Salix , associate with endophytic diazotrophic capable of non-nodulated , enhancing growth in low-nitrogen environments. It also establishes ectomycorrhizal symbioses with fungi such as those in the genus , which improve and , with rates of 14–28% in natural forests. Hybridization is a key biotic interaction for S. caprea, as it frequently interbreeds with sympatric Salix species such as S. cinerea and S. aurita, producing fertile hybrids due to overlapping flowering times and habitats. This leads to hybrid swarms in disturbed areas like forest edges and riverbanks, where via increases but can blur species boundaries, as evidenced by shared haplotypes across populations.

Conservation status

Salix caprea is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN European Red List of Trees (2019 assessment), which remains the latest available as of 2025, reflecting its extensive distribution and stable populations across much of Europe and western Asia. This assessment underscores the species' resilience as a widespread pioneer shrub in temperate and boreal regions, with no evidence of significant global decline. Regionally, however, S. caprea faces threats from habitat loss due to wetland drainage and agricultural intensification, particularly in lowland areas of where conversion for farming has fragmented suitable moist soils. poses additional risks to alpine and montane varieties, potentially altering patterns and exacerbating stress in high-elevation habitats. Overall population trends are stable or increasing in many areas, though declines occur in isolated, fragmented populations vulnerable to and reduced . Monitoring efforts under the EU Habitats Directive track these trends within protected riparian and woodland habitats through the network. Conservation actions include within designated reserves across , where S. caprea contributes to in wetland and ecosystems. The is also actively utilized in restoration projects for , leveraging its rapid growth and root systems to stabilize riverbanks and reclaim degraded lands, thereby supporting recovery initiatives.

Cultivation and uses

Horticultural cultivation

Salix caprea can be propagated from , which have short viability and require stratification for about in a moist environment to break dormancy before in spring. Vegetative propagation is more common in , using cuttings taken in summer or cuttings in winter, which readily when planted in moist, well-drained potting mix and kept in a humid, shaded location until established. Weeping forms, such as 'Kilmarnock', are typically propagated by grafting onto standard stock to maintain their pendulous habit. In cultivation, Salix caprea thrives in average to moist, well-drained soils with , though it tolerates if consistently moist. It prefers full sun for optimal flowering but adapts to partial shade, and after flowering—or every few years for —helps maintain shape and vigor. The species is hardy in USDA zones 4–8, enduring cold down to -30°F (-34°C) with minimal winter protection. Popular ornamental cultivars include 'Kilmarnock', a weeping male form with golden catkins emerging in early spring and pendulous branches reaching 6–8 feet tall. 'Pendula' offers a similar compact, umbrella-shaped habit, ideal for small gardens, with silvery-gray catkins on arching stems. 'Silberglanz' features silvery young leaves that add a shimmering effect, along with large gray catkins, growing to 13–23 feet as a shrub or small tree. In horticultural settings, Salix caprea may encounter pests like aphids, which cluster on new growth and can be managed with insecticidal soap or horticultural oil applications. Willow anthracnose, caused by fungi such as Marssonina salicicola, leads to leaf spots and branch dieback; prevention involves good air circulation through pruning, and treatment includes removing infected parts and applying copper-based fungicides during wet springs.

Traditional and commercial uses

Salix caprea, commonly known as goat willow or pussy willow, has been utilized in traditional medicine primarily for its bark, which contains salicin, a glycoside that serves as a precursor to salicylic acid and exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and febrifugal properties. Indigenous and folk practices have employed decoctions of the bark, twigs, or leaves to alleviate headaches, neuralgia, joint pains, and fevers, with historical commercial harvesting of willow bark contributing to the development of aspirin in the 19th century. In modern herbalism, preparations such as teas from the bark continue to be used for similar purposes, though with cautions regarding potential side effects akin to those of aspirin. The flexible branches of Salix caprea have long been harvested for crafting, particularly in basketry and , where coppiced stems provide pliable material suitable for rugs and other woven . , being soft and elastic, yields high-quality and used for and small-scale construction, while the bark's content (5-13%) supports its application in and as a substitute in production. Additionally, the early-blooming catkins, known as willows, are incorporated into traditional crafts, including the making of simple flutes from young shoots in some European folk traditions. Culturally, Salix caprea holds significance in Christian traditions, especially in regions where palm fronds are unavailable, such as ; its soft catkins substitute for palms on , symbolizing renewal and the triumph of life over winter's , as seen in Polish and Latvian customs where branches are blessed and used in rituals. Flowering twigs also feature in decorations across temperate , representing early spring vitality in . Commercially, the species contributes to sustainable practices, with its bark extracted for leather tanning and dyes, leveraging the plant's natural . Salix caprea is planted for along riverbanks and slopes due to its extensive root system and tolerance for wet, unstable soils, aiding in land reclamation and watershed protection. Recent research highlights its potential as a biomass crop for production, capitalizing on fast growth rates and to yield renewable energy feedstocks, as explored in post-2020 studies on short-rotation willow systems for and .

References

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  2. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=c146
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  4. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/SACA22
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  8. https://www.tela-botanica.org/bdtfx-nn-59380-synthese
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