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Eurasian golden oriole
Eurasian golden oriole
Eurasian golden oriole
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Eurasian golden oriole
Male in Ventotene, Italy
Female in Ventotene, Italy
Song and call recorded in Russia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Oriolidae
Genus: Oriolus
Species:
O. oriolus
Binomial name
Oriolus oriolus
     Summer      Winter
Synonyms
  • Coracias oriolus Linnaeus, 1758
  • Oriolus galbula
    Linnaeus[2]

The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus), also known as the common golden oriole, is a species of passerine bird and the only Old World oriole breeding in Northern Hemisphere temperate regions. It is a summer migrant in Europe and the Palearctic and spends the winter season in central and southern Africa.

Taxonomy and systematics

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The Eurasian golden oriole was formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He named the species Coracias oriolus, assigning it to the genus Coracias, which now contains only rollers.[3] The species is now placed in the genus Oriolus that Linnaeus introduced in 1766, creating a tautonym.[4]

The Eurasian golden oriole and the Indian golden oriole were formerly considered conspecific, but in 2005 they were treated as separate species by the ornithologists Pamela Rasmussen and John Anderton, in the first edition of their Birds of South Asia.[5][6] Support for this split was provided by a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010,[7] and most ornithologists now treat the Indian golden oriole as a separate species.[8] Alternate names for the Eurasian golden oriole include the European golden oriole and western Eurasian golden oriole. The species is monotypic; no subspecies are recognized.[4]

Etymology

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The name "oriole" was first used in the 18th century and is an adaptation of the scientific Latin genus name, which is derived from the Classical Latin "aureolus" meaning golden. Various forms of "oriole" have existed in Romance languages since the 12th and 13th centuries.[9] Albertus Magnus used the Latin form oriolus in about 1250 and erroneously stated that it was onomatopoeic because of the golden oriole's song. In medieval England, its name, derived from the song, was the woodwele.

Description

[edit]

The male is striking in the typical oriole black and yellow plumage, but the female is a drabber green bird. Orioles are shy, and even the male is remarkably difficult to see in the dappled yellow and green leaves of the canopy. In flight they look somewhat like a thrush, strong and direct with some shallow dips over longer distances.

Its call is a harsh "kweeaahk", but the song is a fluting weela-wee-ooo or or-iii-ole, unmistakable once heard, often with subtle variations between each phrase.[10]

The male of the Indian golden oriole (Oriolus kundoo) has a black eye-stripe extending behind the eye, has a longer and paler red bill and has more yellow in the plumage.[11][12]

Distribution and habitat

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The breeding range of this species spans from western Europe and Scandinavia east to China. They winter in central and southern Africa.[1] They generally migrate during the night, but may travel during the day in the spring migration. During the autumn migration they migrate via the Eastern Mediterranean where they feed on fruit; they are often considered a pest in this region because of this.[13] They formerly bred in Great Britain; the last confirmed breeding was in 2009 in East Anglia.[14][15]

The Eurasian golden oriole inhabits a range of habitats. In Western Europe they prefer open broadleaf forests and plantations, copses, riverine forests, orchards, large gardens; in Eastern Europe they may inhabit more continuous forests as well as mixed or coniferous forests. They generally avoid treeless habitats but may forage there. In their wintering habitat they are found in semi-arid to humid woodland, tall forests, riverine forest, woodland/savanna mosaic and savanna.[13]

Behaviour and ecology

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Nest placed in fork
Eggs of Oriolus oriolus

Breeding

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Eurasian golden orioles may delay breeding until they are 2 or 3 years of age. Males usually arrive at breeding area several days before the females. The fidelity to a territory or even to a specific nest site suggests that the pair-bond may continue from one breeding season to the next.[16] The nest is placed high in a tree towards the edge of the crown. The deep cup-shaped nest is suspended below a horizontal fork of thin branches. It is built by the female, but the male will sometimes gather some of the material. The nest is held in place by plant fibres up to 40 cm (16 in) in length and lined with fine grass, feathers and wool. The clutch is usually between 3 and 5 eggs. These are laid at daily intervals early in the morning. The eggs are on average 30.4 mm × 21.3 mm (1.20 in × 0.84 in) with a calculated weight of 7.3 g (0.26 oz). They can be white, cream or very pale pink and are decorated with black marks which are sometimes concentrated at the larger end. The eggs are mainly incubated by the female but the male will incubate for short periods to allow the female to feed. The eggs hatch after 16–17 days. The young are fed by both parents but are mostly brooded by the female. The young fledge after 16–17 days. The clutch is only rarely lost to predators as the parents vigorously defend their nest.[17]

The greatest recorded age for a Eurasian golden oriole is 10 years and 1 month for a male that was ringed in Lincolnshire in 1986 and seen alive in Cambridgeshire in 1996.[18][19]

Feeding

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They feed on insects and fruit, using their bills to pick insects out of crevices.

Conservation

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Golden orioles have an extremely large range with large populations that are apparently stable. Therefore, they are evaluated as least concern by BirdLife International.[1]

References

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Sources

[edit]
  • Cramp, Stanley; Perrins, C.M., eds. (1993). "Oriolus oriolus Golden oriole". Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. VII: Flycatchers to Strikes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 415–433. ISBN 978-0-19-857510-8.
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eurasian golden oriole

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) is a medium-sized bird in the family Oriolidae, renowned for the adult male's vibrant golden-yellow accented by black wings, tail, and lores, while the female has duller greenish-yellow upperparts, pale underparts with dark streaking, and greenish or brownish wings. It measures 23–25 cm in length, with a of 44–48 cm and a body mass of 42–102 g. This is a long-distance migrant that breeds in and mixed broadleaf woodlands, riverine forests, orchards, and parks across much of , western and , and parts of , with a global range spanning 26.6 million km². Breeding occurs from May to July, when the female constructs a hanging cup-shaped nest from plant fibers and spider webs in a , typically laying a clutch of 3–5 eggs that are incubated for 16–17 days. The diet consists primarily of such as and spiders, supplemented by fruits, berries, seeds, , and occasionally small vertebrates like . Its vocalizations include a melodious fluting and a harsh, cat-like "mew" alarm call, and it is notably secretive, foraging high in the canopy. The global population is estimated at 13.4–22.5 million mature individuals (as of ), with stable trends overall (as of 2021), though regional declines occur due to habitat loss from forestry practices and agricultural intensification. Classified as Least Concern on the (as of 2024), it faces minor threats from weather extremes, illegal persecution in some areas, and collisions with windows or vehicles during migration, but benefits from protection under the EU Birds Directive in .

Taxonomy

Etymology

The scientific name of the Eurasian golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus, derives from the Latin aureolus, meaning "golden," alluding to the striking yellow plumage of the adult male. The genus name Oriolus was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in the 12th edition of Systema Naturae in 1766, with the type species being a junior synonym of his earlier description. Linnaeus first described the species in 1758 in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae under the binomial Coracias oriolus, placing it initially in the genus Coracias (now restricted to rollers); it was later reclassified into the genus Oriolus within the family Oriolidae. The specific epithet oriolus repeats the genus name, forming a tautonym that emphasizes the bird's characteristic golden coloration in Linnaean nomenclature. The common English name "golden oriole" originated from the term oriol (or l'oriel, meaning "the golden one"), which entered the language in the and evolved through usage to describe the bird's vibrant yellow hues. This nomenclature reflects the ' distinctive appearance and has been consistently applied in ornithological since its formal adoption in English.

Systematics

The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) belongs to the Oriolidae, comprising the Old World orioles, a group of colorful birds primarily distributed across the and . Within this family, it is placed in the Oriolus, the that encompasses 32 extant , characterized by their arboreal habits and often striking yellow, black, or green plumage. The is monotypic, lacking recognized , following its taxonomic separation from the (Oriolus kundoo) in 2005; this split was initially justified by pronounced differences in vocalizations and subtle plumage variations, with subsequent genetic studies confirming distinct lineages through analyses showing over 1% divergence. The Eurasian golden oriole was first formally described by in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, under the binomial name Coracias oriolus, reflecting its initial placement among the rollers due to limited understanding of its affinities at the time. It was subsequently reclassified into the genus Oriolus as taxonomic knowledge advanced, aligning it with other orioles based on morphological and behavioral similarities. This reclassification underscores the evolving of passerines, where early descriptions often grouped birds by superficial traits before molecular and phylogenetic evidence refined relationships. Phylogenetically, the Eurasian golden oriole is part of the order Passeriformes, specifically within the suboscine Corvides (formerly known as corvoids), where the family Oriolidae represents an early-diverging lineage. estimates indicate that Oriolidae originated approximately 20 million years ago in the , diverging from other corvoid lineages around 20–25 million years ago in the proto-Papuan region, with subsequent radiations into , , and . Within the family, the Eurasian golden oriole clusters in a with African species, with its closest relatives including the (Oriolus chinensis), supported by shared genetic markers and biogeographic patterns that suggest an ancestral dispersal from . This positioning highlights the family's role as a relict of early diversification in the .

Description

Morphology

The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) is a medium-sized bird, typically measuring 23–25 cm in length, with a of 44–48 cm and a body mass ranging from 42–102 g. These dimensions contribute to its agile, arboreal lifestyle, allowing it to navigate dense foliage effectively while supporting long-distance migration. Adult males display vibrant plumage, characterized by a bright golden-yellow body, black wings, black tail, and a prominent black eye-stripe; the bill is reddish-pink. In marked , adult females exhibit drabber coloration, with olive-green upperparts, yellowish underparts, and dusky wings, providing better in wooded habitats. Juveniles closely resemble females but are duller overall, featuring more pronounced fine streaking on the underparts and a duller reddish-pink bill; they undergo a post-juvenile molt in their first year to attain adult-like . Structurally, the oriole has a strong, slightly downcurved bill suited for extracting and fruits from crevices, long wings that facilitate efficient migration over vast distances, and a yielding a thrush-like in flight, marked by powerful yet undulating wingbeats.

Vocalization

The Eurasian golden oriole's primary vocalization is a loud, melodious, liquid fluty whistle, typically rendered in as "weela-weeo," "wee-oo," or "weeka-la-weela-weeo," consisting of short phrases lasting 1–2 seconds with varying pitch inflections. These songs are delivered mainly by males from high in the tree canopy, often at dawn or dusk, and exhibit a repertoire of 28–60 distinct phrases that are clear and in quality. Singing activity peaks in the first half of during the breeding season, with birds active from early morning until evening, though intensity declines by late summer. The species also produces a range of calls, including a harsh, disyllabic screech or "chack"/"kyak" note used in general communication or flight, and a sharper "chrrr" near the nest to deter potential intruders. These calls are rough and corvid-like, contrasting the song's flute-like purity, and can be heard from dense foliage where the bird remains concealed. Vocalizations vary by sex and age; females produce songs with a reduced compared to males, while juveniles emit calls such as short, sharp "tseep" notes. The fluty songs function primarily for territorial advertisement and mate attraction in forested habitats, their penetrating quality adapted to carry through thick canopy cover, though the overall remains limited without frequent of other .

Distribution and habitat

Breeding range

The breeding range of the Eurasian golden oriole spans the western Palearctic, extending from western and —including the , , and southern —eastward across to the in southern , extreme northwestern , and northern , with the southern boundary reaching northern , such as . The northern extent of this range has gradually expanded over time, with initial breeding records appearing in during the mid-19th century, in 1932, the in the 1960s, and more recently. This vast distribution covers an estimated extent of occurrence of 26,600,000 km², predominantly within temperate zones of the Palearctic. Within this range, the species exhibits varying population densities, with the highest concentrations in , where optimal conditions support up to 12 breeding pairs per km² in and habitats, such as those documented in continental studies. Densities are notably lower in peripheral areas, including sparse occurrences in northern and the , often below 0.25 pairs per km² due to suboptimal climate and . The overall European breeding is estimated at 4,370,000–7,260,000 pairs, comprising approximately 65% of the global total of 13,400,000–22,500,000 mature individuals, reflecting a trend across the core range. Breeding occurs primarily in deciduous and mixed broadleaf woodlands, favoring mature stands of oak, poplar, ash, and willow, as well as riverine forests, orchards, and urban parks with tall, leafy trees for nesting and foraging. The species avoids dense coniferous forests, preferring semi-open landscapes that provide dense canopy cover and insect-rich understories. In Asian portions of the range, it also utilizes floodplain groves, taiga edges, and oases. Altitudinally, breeding is mostly below 600 m but extends up to 1,800 m in Moroccan mountains and 2,000 m in Russian regions. Arrival at breeding sites varies latitudinally, beginning in mid-May in southern Europe and Morocco, and extending to late May in northern areas like Finland and Scandinavia.

Wintering range and habitat

The Eurasian golden oriole winters across , with its non-breeding range spanning central, eastern, and southern regions such as and southward to . The species typically arrives in these areas from to , with peak influxes in occurring in , and begins departure northward in March through April. While occasional breeding has been reported in parts of , such events are minimal and exceptional. In wintering grounds, the oriole favors moist savannas and woodlands, particularly gallery forests along rivers, and deciduous woodlands, and areas with fruiting trees. Habitat use is more opportunistic compared to the ' breeding preferences for temperate broadleaf forests, extending to forest-savanna mosaics, tree savannas, riverine stands, exotic plantations, orchards, gardens, and windbreaks at elevations up to 1,500 m. Densities in these African habitats are generally lower than in breeding areas, averaging about 0.1 individuals per hectare (or 10 per km²) in sites like Tsavo East National Park in Kenya. Within the continent, the birds display nomadic tendencies, relocating to track seasonal fruit availability and adapting wintering sites in response to local weather patterns like rainfall variations.

Migration

Patterns and timing

The Eurasian golden oriole is an obligate long-distance migrant, breeding across and western before undertaking annual journeys of 5,000–10,000 km to wintering grounds in central and southern . These migrations primarily occur at night, with birds resting during the day, although daytime travel may happen during the northward spring passage. Spring migration typically spans to May, with peak passage in late to early May, while the southward autumn migration occurs from July to , peaking in early to mid-; the return journey is generally faster and more direct, facilitated by favorable winds. Migration is triggered by endogenous cues such as changes in photoperiod, combined with exogenous factors like food availability, with juveniles departing independently and often slightly later than adults in autumn. Prior to departure, individuals build significant reserves, increasing body mass by 20–40% through hyperphagia, enabling sustained nocturnal flights at average ground speeds of 30–50 km/h. In recent decades, spring arrival dates in have advanced slightly due to climate warming, with studies documenting an earlier of about 0.2–0.3 days per year in response to rising spring temperatures.

Routes and stopovers

The Eurasian golden oriole employs migration corridors from its Palearctic breeding grounds in and western to wintering areas in central and . Populations migrate primarily via the (e.g., through , , , and ) before crossing the and heading to central and . While some individuals may cross the Mediterranean further west (e.g., via or the ), the primary corridor is southeastern, with no strict population-specific split to West versus . Recent studies using stable isotopes and geolocators indicate two main wintering clusters: one in and another in southeastern , with individuals adjusting locations based on weather conditions such as rainfall. These routes incorporate key stopover sites essential for refueling. In the , birds pause in areas like (e.g., Antikythira Island) and , where they exploit fruit resources during autumn passage. After crossing the , birds reach wintering grounds in central and ; limited stopovers occur in the . Occasional vagrants reach as far east as , likely deviating from the main . Major barriers along these paths include the and the Desert, which the species navigates primarily in non-stop flights to minimize exposure, though such crossings elevate mortality risks due to exhaustion and predation. Ringing recoveries from European schemes reveal high variability in individual paths, with many birds showing site fidelity at Mediterranean stopovers but broader dispersal in ; geolocator data from related studies corroborate these corridor patterns without evidence of recent satellite tracking specific to the species.

Behavior

Breeding

The Eurasian golden oriole exhibits a monogamous , with pairs forming upon the arrival of males at breeding grounds in late , where they defend territories primarily through . The male's fluting vocalizations serve to attract females and deter rivals, establishing pair bonds that last for the breeding season. Nests are constructed exclusively by the female, who weaves a deep, hanging from plant fibers, grasses, and lichens, suspended hammock-like in a horizontal fork of a typically 10-20 m above the ground. Construction requires 5-7 days, during which the female works intensively to create a secure cup about 15-20 cm deep. The female then lays a clutch of 3-5 eggs, which are pale bluish-white to creamy with brownish-grey or purplish-black spots and streaks, often concentrated at the larger end; eggs are laid daily in early morning. Incubation begins with the completion of and lasts 16-17 days on average (range 13-20 days), performed mainly by the but with brief stints by the to allow her breaks. Chicks hatch altricial, blind, and sparsely feathered, requiring constant brooding by the for the first few days. The nestling period spans 13-17 days, after which young but remain dependent on parental feeding for 2-3 additional weeks while developing flight and skills. Both parents share nestling care, with the often delivering larger prey items. Breeding pairs typically produce one brood per season, though replacement clutches may occur after early failure, and second broods are rare. Fledging success varies but averages 50-70% of eggs leading to independent young, influenced by predation and weather; in a British study, successful nests fledged a mean of 2.15 young from clutches of 3.53 eggs.

Foraging and diet

The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) is omnivorous, with a diet dominated by during the breeding season, supplemented by fruits that become more prominent later in the year, and rarely small , small mammals, eggs, and nestlings. , particularly larvae such as caterpillars and adult beetles, comprise the primary component, often sourced from canopies where the spends much of its time. Fruits including cherries, figs, mulberries, and berries provide essential energy, especially as breeding concludes and migration approaches. This balanced intake supports the 's nutritional needs in woodlands and orchards across its breeding range. Foraging occurs mainly in the upper foliage layers, where the oriole employs gleaning techniques to pick insects from leaves and branches, occasionally hovering briefly (sally-gleaning) or probing crevices with its slender, pointed bill to extract hidden prey. These methods allow efficient access to both arthropods and soft fruits without descending to the ground. During autumn migration, the diet shifts toward increased fruit consumption to accumulate fat reserves for the long journey, with birds favoring energy-rich items like figs in stopover areas. This seasonal adjustment reflects opportunistic feeding adapted to resource availability along migration routes. In its African wintering grounds, the Eurasian golden oriole relies more heavily on frugivory, consuming figs, berries, and other soft fruits from tropical forests and savannas, with a reduced dependence on due to seasonal abundance patterns. This shift aids survival in unfamiliar habitats while minimizing energy expenditure on hunting. The bird's consumption of cherries in European orchards can position it as a minor pest, though its overall impact remains limited by low densities and preference for wild fruits. Digestive adaptations, including a relatively short intestine and rapid gut passage times, facilitate processing of this mixed diet, optimizing nutrient absorption for flight while preventing excess weight from fibrous matter.

Social structure

The Eurasian golden oriole exhibits a largely solitary lifestyle or occurs in pairs during the breeding season, independently or as a mated pair within defended areas. Males arrive first on breeding grounds and establish territories, which they defend vigorously through persistent singing and aggressive chases directed at conspecific intruders or potential threats. These territories typically encompass 5–50 ha, varying with density and resource availability in woodlands. The species maintains a monogamous , with pairs forming for the breeding season to share nest-building, incubation, and chick-rearing duties. Anti-predator behaviors include the emission of harsh alarm calls to warn of approaching threats such as hawks or corvids like , often accompanied by displays where pairs or nearby individuals harass the intruder to deter attacks. Nest predation poses a , particularly from mammalian predators including squirrels in European woodlands, contributing to losses, though parental vigilance reduces overall vulnerability.

Conservation

Population status

The global population of the Eurasian golden oriole is estimated at 13.4–22.5 million mature individuals (as of 2018), with the European breeding population comprising 4.37–7.26 million pairs (as of 2021), equivalent to 8.74–14.6 million mature individuals. These figures indicate a stable since 2015, as the is classified as Least Concern under the criteria, with no evidence of approaching vulnerable thresholds for population decline. Population trends are overall stable across the species' range, though regional variations exist; for instance, the United Kingdom has experienced a significant decline since 2000, leading to its loss as a regular breeding species by 2015, while populations in eastern Europe have remained stable or shown slight increases that offset western losses. Monitoring efforts by the European Bird Census Council (EBCC) reveal no significant changes in European populations from 1980 to 2020, based on systematic breeding bird surveys. Vagrant records occur sporadically outside the core range, including rare sightings in the Americas, though these do not contribute to established populations.

Threats and measures

The Eurasian golden oriole faces several key threats across its breeding and wintering ranges, primarily driven by human activities and environmental changes. Habitat loss due to deforestation and the removal of mature woodlands, such as poplar plantations in parts of Europe, has reduced suitable nesting sites in breeding areas, leading to localized declines. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the loss of poplar habitats has been identified as a significant factor limiting breeding populations. In wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa, ongoing habitat degradation from agricultural expansion and woodland clearance poses risks to foraging and roosting opportunities, though the species shows some adaptability by shifting wintering locations in response to weather variations. As an insectivorous bird, the Eurasian golden oriole is indirectly threatened by the widespread caused by use in agricultural landscapes. pesticides, in particular, have been linked to reduced abundance, which diminishes food availability during breeding and migration, contributing to brood size fluctuations and broader pressures on aerial insectivores. exacerbates these issues by altering migration timing and weather patterns, potentially causing mismatches between arrival dates and peak availability, as well as increasing the frequency of events that affect breeding success. Illegal and in the Mediterranean region represent another major risk during migration, with the targeted for the cage bird trade and sport. In countries like , , and , Eurasian golden orioles are among the migrants caught in large-scale illegal operations, contributing to an estimated 25 million birds killed annually across the region through methods such as mist nets and lime-sticks; specific seizures have included dozens to hundreds of individuals per incident, suggesting thousands affected yearly. Additional localized threats include collisions with structures at migration stopovers and in areas like , where birds are culled for damaging fruit crops. Conservation efforts for the Eurasian golden oriole are supported by legal protections and targeted initiatives. The species is safeguarded under the EU Birds Directive, which prohibits deliberate killing, capture, and for all wild birds, and Appendix II of the Bern Convention, promoting international cooperation for migratory species. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range, and monitoring programs like the EuroBirdPortal aggregate data to track distribution and trends in real-time, aiding in the detection of localized declines. Habitat restoration projects, such as the replanting of poplar woodland in the UK, aim to bolster breeding sites, while broader efforts in address agricultural intensification through reduced use and management to support insect prey. These measures have contributed to the species' overall stable population status, with the IUCN maintaining its Least Concern rating in the 2024 assessment due to its large range and lack of widespread declines. However, future risks persist, particularly if accelerates in African wintering habitats, potentially leading to downlisting if monitoring reveals sustained pressures.

References

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  52. https://artsandscience.usask.ca/news/articles/4074/Controversial_insecticides_shown_to_threaten_survival_of_wil
  53. https://www.birdlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/The_Killing_01-28_low.pdf
  54. https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/news/conservation/report-illegal-hunting-in-the-mediterranean-claims-25-million-birds-every-year/
  55. https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/birds-directive_en
  56. https://www.eurobirdportal.org/
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