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Miombo forest on the Nyika Plateau, Malawi

Miombo woodland is a tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome (in the World Wide Fund for Nature scheme) located in central and southern tropical Africa. It includes three woodland savanna ecoregions (listed below) characterized by the dominant presence of Brachystegia and Julbernardia genera of trees, and has a range of climates ranging from humid to semi-arid, and tropical to subtropical or even temperate.[1] The trees characteristically shed their leaves for a short period in the dry season to reduce water loss and produce a flush of new leaves just before the onset of the wet season with rich gold and red colours masking the underlying chlorophyll, reminiscent of autumn colours in the temperate zone.

Miombo woodlands extend across south-central Africa, running from Angola in the west to Tanzania in the east, including parts of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. They are bounded on the north by the humid Congolian forests, on the northeast by Acacia–Commiphora bushland, and on the south by semi-arid woodlands, grasslands, and savannas.[2]

The woodland gets its name from miombo (plural, singular muombo), the Bemba word for Brachystegia species. Other Bantu languages of the region, such as Swahili and Shona, have related if not identical words, such as Swahili miyombo (singular myombo). These woodlands are dominated by trees of subfamily Detarioideae, particularly miombo (Brachystegia), Julbernardia and Isoberlinia, which are rarely found outside miombo woodlands.[2]

Miombo woodlands can be classified as dry or wet based on the per annum amount and distribution of rainfall.[3] Dry woodlands occur in those areas receiving less than 1000 mm annual rainfall, mostly in Zimbabwe, central Tanzania, eastern and southern Mozambique, Malawi, and southern Zambia. Wet woodlands are those receiving more than 1000 mm annual rainfall, mainly located in northern Zambia, eastern Angola, central Malawi, and western Tanzania. Wet miombo generally has a taller canopy (15 metres or more), more tree cover (60% or more ground cover), and greater species diversity than dry miombo.[2]

Ecoregions

[edit]

Three ecoregions are currently recognized.[4]

Flora and fauna

[edit]
Foliage and pods of the mountain mfuti, Brachystegia glaucescens

Despite the relatively nutrient-poor soil, long dry season, and low rainfall in some areas, the woodland is home to many species, including several endemic bird species. The predominant tree is miombo (Brachystegia spp.). It also provides food and cover for mammals such as the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) and Lichtenstein's hartebeest (Sigmoceros lichtensteinii).[6]

People

[edit]

The miombo woodlands are important to the livelihoods of many rural people who depend on the resources available from the woodland. The wide variety of species provides non-timber products such as fruits, honey, mushrooms, fodder for livestock and fuelwood to various different largely Bantu peoples such as the Bemba people, Lozi people, Yao people, Luvale people, Shona people, and Luba people.

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Miombo

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The Miombo woodlands form one of the world's largest contiguous blocks of tropical dry forest, covering approximately 1.9 million square kilometers (as of 2020) across central and , primarily in , the of Congo, , , , , and . This is defined by its dominance of trees from the legume family, particularly genera such as Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia, which thrive in nutrient-poor, sandy soils under a seasonal with 650–1,400 mm of annual rainfall concentrated in a wet summer period. Often classified as a subtype of tropical and subtropical savannas and woodlands, the Miombo supports a mosaic of open woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands that regenerate prolifically after disturbance, provided fires and cultivation are managed. Renowned for its exceptional , the Miombo harbors over 8,500 plant , including more than 300 tree , with high levels of among orchids, aloes, and other adapted to its fire-prone environment. Its fauna is equally diverse, sustaining large populations of African elephants (accounting for over 50% of the continent's remaining individuals), black rhinos, lions, giraffes, antelopes, and numerous and that rely on the woodland's seasonal fruiting and cycles. Ecologically, the Miombo serves as a critical , storing around 16 billion tons of carbon, and acts as the headwaters for major river systems like the , providing freshwater and to downstream regions. The woodlands are vital for human well-being, supporting the livelihoods of over 300 million people through provisioning services such as fuelwood (which supplies about 70% of the region's needs), timber, medicines, wild fruits, , and thatching materials. In , they underpin via and grazing lands, while also buffering communities against climate variability through resilient ecosystems. However, the Miombo faces severe threats from driven by , production, and uncontrolled fires, resulting in an annual loss of about 0.5% of its cover, alongside that endangers key like and rhinos. Conservation efforts, including the 2022 Miombo Woodlands Declaration by 11 countries, emphasize sustainable management, transboundary protection, and initiatives like and in areas such as the —a spanning 50,000 km². Organizations like the African Wildlife Foundation promote community-based strategies to balance resource use with preservation, highlighting the Miombo's role as an underrecognized "hidden giant" in global ecosystems.

Definition and Distribution

Botanical and Ecological Definition

Miombo woodlands represent a distinctive tropical and subtropical , classified as dry forests and woodlands primarily dominated by detarioid from the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia within the family. These trees form the core structural elements of the , creating open to semi-closed canopies that characterize the type across southern, central, and eastern . Ecologically, Miombo features a canopy typically ranging from 10 to 20 meters in height, with species well-adapted to nutrient-poor, acidic soils and recurrent fires that shape community dynamics. The exhibits pronounced , as trees shed their leaves during the extended dry period, revealing vibrant autumnal hues from pigments before new foliage emerges ahead of the . This habit, combined with fire tolerance through traits like thick bark and resprouting, enables persistence in a regime of frequent surface fires occurring every 1 to 3 years. The evolutionary origins of Miombo woodlands trace back to approximately 10 to 20 million years ago in the early , emerging in response to climatic shifts in that transitioned from wetter conditions to more seasonal monsoonal patterns. Fossil pollen evidence, including early records of Brachystegia-like taxa, indicates initial development in regions like the Cape floral kingdom before expansion and contraction driven by subsequent and glacial-interglacial cycles. What sets Miombo apart from other savanna systems is the overwhelming dominance of its namesake tree genera, which often account for up to 70% of the canopy cover, contrasting with grass-dominated or Acacia-centric formations that prioritize herbaceous layers or different leguminous dominants. This botanical specificity fosters unique ecological interactions, including ectomycorrhizal associations and nutrient cycling adapted to low-fertility environments.

Geographic Extent

The Miombo woodlands encompass a vast expanse across southern and , historically covering an estimated total area of 2.7 to 3.6 million km², though the current extent as of 2024 is approximately 1.9 million km² due to . This extensive dry forest system forms one of the largest contiguous woodland belts on the continent, spanning multiple countries including , the , , , , , and , with fringe occurrences in and . The woodlands' boundaries delineate a broad arc-shaped distribution, with the northern limit extending near in southern and the , reaching approximately 11°S latitude. To the south, the extent traces along the River basin through , , and , descending to about 24°S latitude. Eastern margins incorporate coastal influences in northern , while the western edge stretches into the Angolan highlands and parts of , bounded roughly at 27°E longitude. Fragmentation within this region manifests as continuous woodland belts periodically interrupted by major rivers such as the and Congo, upland mountain ranges, and expanding agricultural clearings. Human activities have accelerated this pattern, with approximately 500,000 hectares cleared annually across in the mid-1990s, resulting in about 40% of the total area under significant anthropogenic modification by that time. These disruptions create isolated patches amid larger intact zones, particularly in communal lands converted for farming and fuelwood extraction.

Ecoregions

Central Zambezian Miombo Woodlands

The ecoregion, designated by the World Wildlife Fund as AT0704, spans approximately 1.02 million square kilometers across the central African Plateau, primarily in central and northern , southeastern , northern , northern , and adjacent areas of , , , and . This ecoregion encompasses much of the River basin, serving as a vital hydrological core that influences regional water flows and supports interconnected systems. Characterized by higher annual rainfall of 1,000–1,400 mm concentrated in a unimodal from November to March or April, the features denser canopies compared to drier Miombo variants, with altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 1,600 meters fostering inselbergs, eroded peneplains, and nutrient enrichment from mounds in otherwise poor, sandy soils. Iconic landscape elements include scattered baobab trees (), which thrive in the wetter riverine zones and contribute to the heterogeneous mosaic of vegetation. Biodiversity in this ecoregion is notably high, with over 3,000 plant species, including hundreds of endemics dominated by caesalpinioid such as Brachystegia spiciformis and its regional variants, alongside Julbernardia and Isoberlinia species that form the characteristic miombo canopy. densities are elevated, supporting substantial populations of African bush elephants (Loxodonta africana) in migratory herds and the ( niger), which favors the woodland-grassland interfaces. The broader Miombo ecoregion sustains over 100 million people (as of 2020s estimates), with many in this area reliant on , timber, and non-timber forest products, and population pressures concentrated around urban centers and agricultural zones. Key conservation sites include in , one of Africa's largest protected areas at over 22,000 square kilometers, which preserves core woodland habitats and wildlife corridors essential for regional .

Eastern and Southern Miombo Woodlands

The Eastern and Southern Miombo Woodlands represent drier peripheral variants of the broader Miombo , characterized by adaptations to lower and coastal or highland influences that distinguish them from the wetter central zones. The Eastern Miombo Woodlands ( AT0706) extend across approximately 484,000 km², encompassing coastal and interior regions of southern , northern , and southeastern . In contrast, the Southern Miombo Woodlands ( AT0719) cover about 407,000 km², spanning the highlands of southern , , , and adjacent parts of . These areas feature more open canopy structures due to annual rainfall typically ranging from 800 to 1,200 mm, which is lower than in central Miombo zones, fostering sparser tree cover and greater grass . In the east, moisture from monsoons moderates the dry season, while southern escarpments create rain shadows that enhance aridity and promote woodland openness. Biodiversity in these woodlands emphasizes drought-tolerant species and regional endemics, with plant communities often dominated by Julbernardia globiflora, a key miombo tree that thrives in the nutrient-poor, sandy soils prevalent here and contributes to the woodland's deciduous structure. This dominance supports a diverse of shrubs and adapted to seasonal fires and . Avian diversity is particularly notable, with higher concentrations of miombo specialists such as the African spotted creeper (Salpornis salvadori), a cryptic bark-forager endemic to these open woodlands across , , and . In the southern reaches, these woodlands integrate with (Colophospermum mopane) savannas along drier gradients, creating transitional zones that host mixed assemblages of browsers and fire-resistant flora. Fragmentation poses a significant threat to these ecoregions, exacerbated by rapid urbanization near coastal cities like in , which has converted extensive woodland patches into built-up areas and agricultural expanses. In , mining activities, particularly and extraction, have accelerated loss and patch isolation in southern highlands, reducing connectivity and increasing that favor . These pressures result in higher fragmentation indices compared to central Miombo, with woodland patches becoming smaller and more isolated over recent decades. Despite this, migration corridors link these peripheral woodlands to central areas, facilitating for like and large ungulates.

Physical Environment

Climate Patterns

The Miombo woodlands experience a distinct seasonal climate characterized by a wet season from November to April, during which over 95% of the annual rainfall occurs, and a dry season from May to October. Annual precipitation typically ranges from 710 to 1365 mm, with the wet season driven by the northward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which brings convective rainfall to the region. Temperatures during this period average 20–30°C, supporting rapid vegetation growth and contributing to the woodlands' fire-adapted tree species. In the , relative humidity often drops below 30%, exacerbating stress, while temperatures remain warm with averages of 20–30°C but can fall to around 10°C in highland areas. variability is pronounced, with events like the 2015–2016 El Niño causing severe that reduced productivity and household incomes in by up to 20–30%. Since 1980, regional temperatures have risen by 1–2°C, intensifying heatwaves and altering rainfall patterns. Zonal differences influence these patterns, with northern and central Miombo areas receiving wetter conditions exceeding 1000 mm annually, while southern and eastern zones are drier with less than 1000 mm, leading to variations in density and resilience.

Soils and Fire Ecology

The s of Miombo woodlands are predominantly infertile and acidic, consisting mainly of deep, highly weathered sandy s, ferralsols, acrisols, and arenosols derived from basement rocks of the African Shield cratons. These s, classified under USDA categories such as Haplustox and Paleustults, exhibit low (typically 7-8 me/100g in topsoil) and content, with textures ranging from loamy to sandy clay that ensure good permeability but limit water retention. Nutrient availability is constrained, particularly levels often below 10 mg/kg (e.g., averaging 5.6 mg/kg in undisturbed woodlands), alongside low and exchangeable bases, reflecting intense leaching over geological timescales on the ancient Central African plateau. In southern extents, Kalahari sands—pale, quartz-rich deposits up to 500 m deep—overlay these formations, contributing to even lower fertility in drier zones, while has sculpted undulating pediplains and plateaus that influence depth and drainage patterns. Fire plays a pivotal role in Miombo ecology, with a regime dominated by frequent, dry-season burns that are largely anthropogenic—driven by activities like land clearing, , and resource harvesting—but supplemented by occasional natural ignitions. These fires occur annually or every 2-5 years (mean return interval around 3 years regionally), peaking from to October when fine fuels from grasses and litter are desiccated by the pronounced seasonal dryness. Miombo trees exhibit remarkable adaptations to this regime, resprouting vigorously from underground lignotubers and root suckers after top-kill, which enables rapid regeneration and sustains the characteristic open woodland canopy structure rather than allowing succession to denser . The interplay of soils and profoundly shapes Miombo resilience and function, as frequent burns prevent canopy closure by suppressing juvenile trees while nutrients through ash deposition, though excessive intensity can exacerbate and on already nutrient-poor substrates. frequency every 2-5 years maintains at levels of 50-100 tons/ha (aboveground woody typically 55-90 Mg/ha), but alters carbon storage dynamics by promoting lower-density stands that store less total carbon (around 40 Mg C/ha in mature woodlands) compared to fire-excluded scenarios, while repeated events release trace gases and reduce long-term sequestration potential. This regime underscores Miombo's status as a -dependent , where moderate burning fosters and structural openness essential for its .

Biodiversity

Flora

The Miombo woodlands feature a rich assemblage of woody plants dominated by over 300 tree species primarily from the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia, all belonging to the legume subfamily . These trees form the characteristic open canopy, typically 10–15 meters tall, with Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia paniculata being particularly prevalent and often comprising the majority of the upper layer in many areas. The includes fruit-bearing trees such as Uapaca kirkiana, which thrives in the shaded, well-drained conditions beneath the canopy. Vascular plant diversity in the Miombo is exceptionally high, encompassing approximately 8,500 , more than 50% of which are endemic to this . The ground layer consists of a variable herbaceous stratum dominated by grasses like Loudetia spp. and forbs, which contribute to the woodland's seasonal flush of growth during the wet period. Miombo exhibits key adaptations to the region's seasonal and nutrient-poor soils, including shedding in the to minimize water loss and enhance survival under conditions. Dominant trees form ectomycorrhizal symbioses that improve and nutrient acquisition from infertile, acidic substrates, while some species in the family also facilitate to bolster . Non-woody components enrich the , with medicinal succulents such as Aloe greatheadii occurring in open grassy patches within the woodlands, alongside orchids and ferns concentrated in moister microhabitats like riverine pockets.

Fauna

The Miombo woodlands support a rich assemblage of animal life, with diverse mammals, birds, reptiles, and invertebrates adapted to the open-canopy habitat dominated by deciduous trees. These species play crucial ecological roles, including herbivory that shapes vegetation structure, predation that regulates populations, and soil engineering that enhances nutrient cycling. Mammalian biodiversity in the Miombo is characterized by large herbivores and carnivores, with high species diversity but relatively low endemism. Key herbivores include the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), which maintains some of Africa's largest populations across the woodlands, accounting for over 50% of the continent's remaining savanna elephants, estimated at more than 200,000 individuals as of 2022. The sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), a robust browser with distinctive curved horns, is a characteristic species that thrives in miombo savannas, contributing to grassland maintenance through grazing. Prominent carnivores encompass the lion (Panthera leo), which preys on ungulates in open areas, and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), an endangered pack hunter that relies on cooperative pursuits of medium-sized prey like impala. Large mammal biomass in intact miombo areas can reach approximately 15,000 kg/km², underscoring the ecoregion's capacity to sustain substantial vertebrate communities. Avian diversity exceeds 400 in many miombo landscapes, with communities influenced by seasonal migrations linked to the wet period's abundance and water availability. Endemic or near-endemic birds, such as the miombo pied barbet (Tricholaema frontata), inhabit edges and feed on fruits and , exemplifying adaptations to the deciduous canopy. Raptors and specialists, including over 50 raptor in some protected areas, further highlight the ecoregion's role as a migratory corridor for intra-African . Reptiles number over 200 species across the Miombo, including arboreal and terrestrial forms suited to the mosaic of woodlands and termitaria. The boomslang (Dispholidus typus), a highly venomous tree-dwelling snake, preys on birds and lizards in the canopy, demonstrating the ecoregion's support for cryptic predators. Invertebrates, particularly termites of the genus Macrotermes, function as ecosystem engineers by constructing massive mounds up to 5 meters high, which enrich soil fertility and create microhabitats that boost local . Endemism among Miombo vertebrates is notable, with several unique or near-endemic taxa; for instance, subspecies like Thornicroft's giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis thornicroftii) in the Luangwa Valley represent localized adaptations. Small mammals, such as Vernay's climbing mouse (Dendromus vernayi) in Angolan miombo, exemplify restricted distributions that contribute to the ecoregion's distinct faunal identity.

Human Aspects

Peoples and Livelihoods

The Miombo woodlands support the livelihoods of over 250 million people, including around 100 million rural dwellers belonging to various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bemba in northern , the Shona in , and the Chewa in and . Rural population densities across these regions generally range from 20 to 40 people per square kilometer, supporting sustainable yet pressured communal systems. Livelihoods in Miombo communities center on , where practices like chitemene in integrate the growing of staple crops such as , , , and millet with woodland resource extraction for through ash fertilization. These activities are complemented by woodland gathering, including the collection of fruits, , and other non-timber products, as well as seasonal honey harvesting that often involves temporary migration to areas with abundant wild bee colonies. Social organization in Miombo societies includes matrilineal structures among groups like the Chewa in , where and land rights pass through the female line, influencing household decision-making and resource allocation. , encompassing identification of edible species and sustainable harvesting techniques, is transmitted orally across generations, fostering of woodland resources despite increasing external pressures. Communities depend on wild foods from the woodlands for nutritional security, with edible caterpillars (such as ) and mushrooms (including species) frequently providing important sources of dietary protein during seasonal peaks, alongside vitamins and minerals essential for health in resource-limited settings. Economic products like timber support limited commercial activities, but subsistence practices remain dominant for most households.

Cultural and Economic Significance

The Miombo woodlands hold profound cultural importance for indigenous communities across , serving as sites for spiritual rituals and . Sacred groves within these woodlands are preserved as dwellings for ancestral spirits, rain deities, and the souls of the deceased, often governed by traditional taboos that prohibit tree felling or entry without permission. Among the people in Zambia's Gwembe Valley, such groves are integral to rain-making ceremonies like Lwiindi Gonde, performed during the to invoke rainfall through communal rituals and offerings. In , Miombo trees, particularly species like Pterocarpus angolensis, symbolize strength and purification, featuring in Ndembu ceremonies where they represent ancestral connections and cosmic renewal. These practices underscore the woodlands' role in territorial cults and governance, where violations of sacred rules are believed to provoke spiritual retribution, such as droughts or crop failures. Economically, the Miombo woodlands are a cornerstone for energy and resource needs, with fuelwood and accounting for approximately 76% of total in the and up to 70-90% for urban households in countries like and . Annual charcoal production from Miombo reaches about 6.5 million tonnes across seven key countries, equivalent to roughly 50 million tonnes of wood when accounting for conversion ratios, supporting livelihoods for 1.4-2.5 million people and generating a traded value of around $780 million yearly. Timber from species such as Pterocarpus angolensis is harvested for construction poles and furniture, while non-timber products like baobab () fruit provide exportable goods for and , contributing to household incomes in rural areas. Trade in Miombo products extends to international markets, where non-timber forest products like and generate significant revenue, with devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) tubers exported for treatment and valued in global herbal markets exceeding hundreds of millions annually. The overall in such products from southern African woodlands, including baobab derivatives, supports niche organic sectors worth up to $1-2 billion yearly when combined with and other extracts. Tourism leverages the woodlands' for wildlife viewing, particularly in areas like Tanzania's , attracting visitors to observe elephants, rhinos, and endemic birds, thereby boosting local economies through initiatives. As of 2024, climate variability is increasingly affecting traditional livelihoods, prompting community initiatives for sustainable NTFP harvesting. Historically, pre-colonial trade routes in the Miombo region relied on woodlands for production to fuel iron , a key in where furnaces processed ores using dense-wood from miombo species, enabling the exchange of iron tools and weapons across . These activities, conducted seasonally by large labor groups, integrated woodlands into economic networks that predated colonial influences and shaped settlement patterns around resource-rich areas.

Conservation

Threats

The Miombo woodlands face significant , with annual loss rates estimated between 0.2% and 1.7% of the total area, primarily driven by production and slash-and-burn agriculture for expanding cultivation. demand, fueled by urban energy needs, accounts for much of the tree felling, while agricultural expansion clears large patches for subsistence farming, exacerbating soil degradation in nutrient-poor sandy soils. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, expansion further accelerates through land clearance for operations and associated development. Climate change poses additional risks. Southern African models forecast a potential decline in annual rainfall of up to 10% by mid-century, intensifying water stress across the region and altering seasonal patterns critical for miombo tree . Increased intensity, as drier fuels burn more fiercely, leads to greater canopy damage and reduced recovery compared to historical fire regimes. Unsustainable harvesting practices target valuable species, such as Pterocarpus angolensis, whose slow growth rates make populations vulnerable to for high-quality timber used in and furniture. This selective disrupts forest structure, favoring fire-tolerant but less diverse regrowth. , including , further degrade habitats by colonizing disturbed clearings, forming dense thickets that suppress native seedling establishment and alter soil nutrient cycles. These pressures culminate in substantial , with ongoing contributing to declines in tree and shrub across the woodlands. and degradation also release significant carbon emissions, estimated at levels that undermine the miombo's role as a regional . Local communities' heavy reliance on woodlands for fuel and food heightens vulnerability, as intensifies cycles amid these environmental changes.

Efforts and Protected Areas

Protected areas in the Miombo woodlands encompass a significant portion of the , with coverage varying by country from approximately 6.6% in to 30.4% in , particularly within the Zambezi River Basin where they span about 1.3 million km² across eight priority landscapes. Notable examples include in , which covers 9,050 km² of Miombo-dominated bushveld and supports diverse wildlife through strict protection measures. Similarly, Niassa Reserve in protects 42,000 km², one of the largest tracts of intact Miombo in Africa, emphasizing and habitat restoration to maintain ecological connectivity, though recent security challenges from insurgency as of 2025 have complicated efforts. The Miombo Network, established in 1995 as southern Africa's oldest regional collaboration on land monitoring, facilitates cross-border management by integrating scientific data and policy advice to address and promote sustainable practices across the . Complementing this, REDD+ projects in Miombo landscapes focus on reducing emissions through avoided and restoration, with initiatives like the Kulera Landscape REDD+ Program in projected to generate over 7.2 million tons of carbon emission reductions by conserving Miombo woodlands in co-managed protected areas. In , community-led REDD+ efforts aim to sequester up to 2 million tons of CO₂ annually by 2030 through Miombo restoration, highlighting the potential for scaling carbon finance in the region. Community-based approaches have gained prominence, particularly (JFM) in , where over 863 villages participate in co-managing government forest reserves to regulate resource use and regenerate Miombo stands. In , initiatives emphasize native Miombo species, with programs like the FAO-supported transboundary project, launched in 2025, aiming to plant thousands of trees annually to combat degradation and enhance local livelihoods. A key regional effort is the 2022 Miombo Woodlands Declaration, signed by 11 (SADC) countries, which commits to sustainable management, transboundary protection, , and anti-poaching measures to preserve the ecoregion's biodiversity and ecosystem services. International organizations play a role, with WWF continuing involvement in Miombo landscapes following its Miombo Ecoregion Conservation Strategy (2011-2020), targeting eight landscapes for integrated protection, including transfrontier conservation areas like the that span 454,000 km². IUCN supports these through assessments of protection status and community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) programs, such as in , which empowers rural communities to derive benefits from Miombo resources while enforcing sustainable harvesting. National policies, including Zambia's REDD+ strategy, align with these efforts by designating no-go zones for mining in sensitive Miombo areas to bolster long-term conservation.

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  42. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S037811270500455X
  43. https://bridelia.org/the-miombo-woodlands/
  44. https://www.southluangwa.com/
  45. https://mozambique.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Niassa-Special-Reserve.aspx
  46. https://adf-magazine.com/2025/06/islamic-state-group-attacks-bring-new-reality-to-mozambique-reserve/
  47. https://start.org/wp-content/uploads/publication/Miombo.pdf
  48. https://www.terraglobalcapital.com/kulera-landscape-redd-program-co-managed-protected-areas-malawi
  49. https://carbonherald.com/new-woodlands-restoration-project-in-zambia-to-remove-2m-tons-of-carbon-per-year-by-2030/
  50. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/370341468118456996/pdf/658780WP00PUBL0ng0and0Carbon0Rights.pdf
  51. https://www.fao.org/africa/news-stories/news-detail/fao-launches-transboundary-project-for-sustainable-miombo-woodlands-management-in-southern-africa/en
  52. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/zam181907.pdf
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