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List of unclassified languages of South America
List of unclassified languages of South America
List of unclassified languages of South America
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The following purported languages of South America are listed as unclassified in either Campbell (2012), Loukotka (1968), Ethnologue, or Glottolog. Nearly all are extinct. It is likely that many of them were not actually distinct languages, only ethnic or regional names.

Campbell & Grondona (2012)

[edit]
See also: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas § Campbell (2012)

Campbell & Grondona (2012:116–130) lists the following 395 languages of South America as unclassified. Most are extinct.[1] Many were drawn from Loukotka (1968)[2] and Adelaar & Muysken (2004).[3] The majority are not listed in Ethnologue. The list is arranged in alphabetical order.

  • Aarufi – Colombia
  • Aburuñe – Bolivia; spoken near Pantanal
  • Acarapi – Brazil
  • Aconipa (Tabancale, Tabancara) – Ecuador; only 5 words known
  • Aguano (Awano, Ahuano, Uguano, Aguanu, Santa Crucino) – Peru; completely unattested but thought to be Arawakan
  • Alarua – Brazil
  • Alon – Peru; along the Huallaga River[4]
  • Amasifuin – Peru; along the Huallaga River[4]
  • Amikoana (Amikuân) – Brazil; appears to be nonexistent[5]
  • Amoeca – Brazil
  • Amuimo – Brazil
  • Anetine – Bolivia
  • Angara – Peru
  • Anicum – Brazil
  • Anserma (including Caramanta, Cartama) – Colombia, is considered Chocoan
  • Aperea – Argentina
  • Apitupá – Brazil
  • Apiyipán – Bolivia
  • Aracadaini – Brazil
  • Arae – Brazil
  • Aramayu – Brazil
  • Aramurú – Brazil
  • Arapoá – Brazil
  • Arara do Beiradão (Arara do Rio Branco, Arara do Aripuanã) – Brazil
  • Ararau – Brazil
  • Arda – Peru, Colombia (a purported language isolate called "Arda" has no relation, but was a misidentified vocabulary and texts of the West African language Popo (Gen))
  • Arma-Pozo (Arma) – Colombia; known from 1 word only[3]
  • Aroásene – Brazil
  • Artane – Bolivia; spoken near Pantanal
  • Atavila – Peru
  • Aticum (Araticum, Uamué) – Brazil; data from Meader (1978) likely to be faked[6]
  • Atunceta – Colombia
  • Aueiko – Brazil
  • Avis – Brazil
  • Axata Darpa – Paraguay
  • Ayacore – Peru
  • Bagua – Peru; only 3 words known, thought to be Cariban[3]
  • Baixóta – Brazil
  • Bakurönchichi – Brazil
  • Bauá – Brazil
  • Bikutiakap – Brazil
  • Bixarenren – Brazil
  • Boimé (Poyme) – Brazil
  • Bolona – Ecuador
  • Bracamoro (Papamuru) – Peru
  • Buritiguara – Brazil
  • Caapina – Brazil
  • Cachipuna – Peru
  • Cafuana – Brazil
  • Cagua – Colombia; ISO 639 code retired as spurious
  • Caguan (Kaguan) – Argentina
  • Cahan – Brazil
  • Cajamarca – Peru
  • Cajatambo – Peru
  • Camana (Maje) – Peru
  • Camaraxo – Brazil
  • Camaré – Brazil
  • Campaces – Ecuador; possibly Barbacoan, with Tsafiki, but unconfirmed
  • Canelo – Ecuador
  • Cañacure – Bolivia
  • Capueni – Brazil
  • Capua – Brazil
  • Cara (Scyri, Caranqui, Otavalo) – Ecuador; thought to be Barbacoan[3]
  • Carabayo (Yuri, "Amazonas Macusa"), grouped in the Ticuna–Yuri languages[7]
  • Caraguata – Brazil
  • Carapacho – Peru
  • Carára – Brazil
  • Carari – Brazil, Amazonas; a short word-list recorded by Johann Natterer which shows no resemblance to known languages, but possibly Arawakan
  • Cararú (Cajurú) – Brazil
  • Caripó (Curupeche) – Brazil
  • Cascoasoa – Peru
  • Casigara – Brazil
  • Casota – Argentina
  • Cauacaua (Kawakawa) – Brazil
  • Cauauri – Brazil
  • Caucahue – southern Chile
  • Cauni – Brazil
  • Caupuna – Brazil
  • Cavana (Maje) – Peru
  • Caxago – Brazil
  • Cayú – Brazil
  • Ceococe – Brazil
  • Chachapoya (Chacha) – Peru; known entirely from toponyms
  • Chancay – Brazil
  • Chechehet ("Pampa") – Argentina; Loukotka (1968) gives the words chivil 'two', chu 'earth', and hati 'great'. Is the same as Gününa Küne.[8]
  • Chedua – Peru
  • Chicha – Bolivia
  • Chincha – Peru
  • Chinchipe – Peru
  • Chipiajes – Colombia
  • Chitarero – Colombia
  • Cholto – Peru
  • Chongo – Peru
  • Chono – Chile; considered language isolate.
  • Chumbivilca – Peru; possibly a variety of Puquina; might be Aymaran[6]
  • Chunanawa – Peru; possibly Panoan based on suffix -nawa in Fleck (2013)
  • Churima – Bolivia
  • Chusco – Peru
  • Ciaman – Colombia
  • Cognomona – Peru; along the Huallaga river[4]
  • Colima[9] – Ecuador; possibly Cariban, linked with Pijao
  • Comanahua – Peru; along the Huallaga river[4]
  • Comaní – Brazil
  • Comechingón – near Córdoba, Argentina; possibly Huarpean
  • Copallén (Copallín) – Peru; only 4 words known
  • Coritananhó – Brazil
  • Coxima (Koxima) – Colombia
  • Culaycha – Argentina
  • Cumayari – Brazil
  • Cumbazá (Belsano) – Peru
  • Curanave – Brazil
  • Curi – Brazil
  • Curiane – northeastern South America; precise location unknown
  • Curierano – Brazil
  • Curizeta – Peru
  • Curubianan – Brazil
  • Curumiá – Brazil
  • Curumro (Kurumro) – Paraguay
  • Curuzirari – Brazil
  • Cutaguá – Brazil
  • Cutría – Brazil
  • Cuximiraíba – Brazil
  • Cuxiuára – Brazil
  • Damanivá – Brazil
  • Dawainomol – Paraguay
  • Demacuri – Brazil
  • Diaguita (Cacan, Kakán) – northwest Argentina; subdivisions are Calchaquí, Capayán, Catamarcano, Hualfín, Paccioca [Pazioca], Pular, Quilme, Yacampis
  • Divihet – Argentina; considered a synonym of Gününa Küne[6]
  • Dokoro – Brazil
  • Duri – Brazil
  • Egualo – Argentina
  • Eimi – Peru
  • Emischata – Argentina
  • Envuelto – Colombia; 9 words known[10]
  • Erema – Brazil
  • Ewarhuyana – Brazil; possibly 12 speakers in Pará State, now considered synonym of Tiriyó
  • Foklása – Brazil; the ethnic group speaks Fulniô according to the Fulni-ô ethnic group[6]
  • Gadio – Brazil
  • Galache (Galaxe) – Brazil
  • Gambéla – Brazil
  • Gorgotoqui – Bolivia; all documentation lost
  • Goyana – Brazil
  • Guaca (and Nori) – Colombia; known from only 1 word guaca 'devil'[11]
  • Guacará – Argentina
  • Guadaxo – Brazil
  • Guaimute – Brazil
  • Guajarapo (Guasaroca) – Bolivia
  • Guanaca – Colombia; possibly a relative of Guambiano (Barbacoan)
  • Guane – Colombia; possibly Chibchan
  • Guanarú – Brazil
  • Guanavena – Brazil
  • Guarino – Brazil
  • Guenta – Colombia
  • Guyarabe – Brazil
  • Hacaritama – Colombia; supposed wordlist shown to be from Wayuu
  • Harritiahan – Brazil
  • Hiauahim (Javaim) – Brazil
  • Himarimã – Brazil; uncontacted group, apparently Arawan based off of lost wordlist
  • Huancavilca – Ecuador; extinct, only 4 words known
  • Huambuco – Peru; might be a misspelling of Huánuco
  • Huayana – Peru
  • Huayla – Peru
  • Humahuaca (Omaguaca) – Argentina; known from only proper names, apparent subdivisions are Fiscara, Jujuy, Ocloya, Osa, Purmamarca, Tiliar; Mason (1950:302) proposed an "Ataguitan" grouping that includes Humahuaca, Diaguita, and Atacameño
  • Iapama – Brazil
  • Ibabi Aniji – Peru[12]
  • Idabaez[13] – Colombia; only 1 word (tubete 'medicine man')[14] and a chief's name are known; Pacific coast, Bahía Solano to Cape Marzo in Colombia (Loukotka 1968)
  • Imaré – Brazil
  • Ina – Brazil
  • Iñajurupé – Brazil
  • Irra – Colombia
  • Iruri – Brazil
  • Isolados do Massaco (?) – Brazil; possibly identified with Sirionó or Papiamän[6]
  • Isolados do Tanarú (?) – Brazil[15] (Man of the Hole)
  • Itipuna – Brazil
  • Itucá (Cuacá) – Brazil
  • Jacariá – Brazil
  • Jaguanai – Brazil
  • Jaguanan – Brazil
  • Jamundi – Colombia; may be Yurumangui, but no data
  • Jeticó (Jiripancó) – Brazil; the Jiripancó are descendants of the Pankararú
  • Jitirijiti (Jitirigiti) – Colombia; may be Chocóan, but no data
  • Jurema – Brazil
  • Juruena – Brazil
  • Jururu – Brazil
  • Kaimbé (Caimbé, Caimbe) – Brazil; extinct, known from 7 words
  • Kamba (Camba) – Brazil; retired as spurious from ISO 639
  • Kambiwá (Cambiuá, Cambioá) – Brazil; extinct
  • Kantaruré[16] – Brazil; the Kantaruré are descendants of the Pankararú but their linguistic identification is impossible[17]
  • Kapinawá – Brazil; extinct, possibly descended from the Paratió
  • Karahawyana (Karapawyana, Karafawyana) – Brazil; now classified as a dialect of the Waiwai language
  • Katembri (Kariri de Mirandela) – Brazil
  • Kiapüre (Quiapyre) – Brazil
  • Kohoroxitari – possibly Tucanoan; may be the same as Baniwa
  • Kokakôre – Brazil
  • Komokare – Brazil
  • Korubo (Caceteiros) – Brazil; known to be Panoan[6]
  • Koshurái – Brazil
  • Kururu – Brazil
  • Lache – Colombia; may be Chibchan, but no data
  • Lambi – Brazil
  • Lili – Colombia; may be Yurumangui, but no data
  • Llamish – Peru
  • Macamasu – Brazil
  • Macarú – Brazil
  • Macuani – Brazil
  • Macuaré – Brazil
  • Macuja – Brazil
  • Macuruné – Brazil
  • Mairajiqui – Brazil
  • Malaba – Ecuador; may be Barbacoa (Chibchan), but no data
  • Malibú – Colombia; formerly considered Chibchan
  • Malquesi – Paraguay
  • Manesono (Mopeseano) – Bolivia
  • Manta (Manabi) – Ecuador; possibly Chimú, but only a few patronyms are known
  • Maracano – Brazil
  • Marapaña – Brazil
  • Maricoxi – Brazil
  • Maricupi – Brazil
  • Maripá – Brazil
  • Maruquevene – Brazil
  • Masa – Argentina
  • Masarari – Brazil
  • Masaya – Colombia
  • Mashco – Peru; uncontacted, possibly related to Piro (Arawakan), or "Preandine" (Arawakan), known from 24 words
  • Matará – Argentina; may be related to Tonocoté[18]
  • Maynas (Mayna, Maina, Rimachu) – Peru; past attempts to link it to Jivaroan, Cahuapanan, Zaparoan, and Candoshi
  • Maxiena (Ticomeri) – Bolivia; completely unknown
  • Mayu – Brazil; possibly the same as Mayo (Panoan) or Morike (Arawakan); mayu is the Quechuan word for 'river, water'
  • Menejou – Brazil
  • Minhahá – Brazil
  • Miarrã – Brazil
  • Mocana – Brazil; may be related to Malibú, but only 2 words known
  • Moheyana – Brazil
  • Morcote – Colombia; may be Chibchan, but no data
  • Moriquito – Brazil
  • Morua – Brazil
  • Moyobamba (Moyo-Pampa) – Peru
  • Muriva – Brazil
  • Muzapa – Peru
  • Muzo[19] – Colombia; may be Pijao (Cariban)
  • Natagaimas – Colombia; extinct
  • Nacai – Brazil
  • Nambu – Bolivia
  • Nauna – Brazil
  • Nindaso – Peru
  • Nocadeth – Brazil
  • Nomona – Peru
  • Ñumasiara – Brazil
  • Ocra – Peru
  • Ocren – Brazil
  • Ohoma – Argentina; may be the same as Hohoma or Mahoma
  • Oivaneca – Brazil
  • Olmos – Peru; possibly connected with Sechura
  • Onicoré – Brazil
  • Onoyóro – Brazil
  • Orí – Brazil
  • Ortue (Ortu, Urtue) – Bolivia
  • Otecua – Peru
  • Otegua – Colombia
  • Otí (Eochavante, Chavante) – Brazil; Greenberg classifies it as Macro-Gê, though this is unlikely according to Ribeiro (2006:422), otherwise considered isolate, only around 110 words known
  • Pacabuey – Colombia; may be Malibú (Chibchan), but no data
  • Pacarará (Pakarara) – Brazil
  • Pacimonari – Venezuela
  • Paguara – Brazil
  • Panatagua (Panatahua, Panatawa) – Peru; extinct, possibly Arawakan, presumed Panoan based on ethnonym by Fleck (2013)
  • Panche– Colombia; possibly Cariban
  • Pankararé (Pankaré) – Bahía, Brazil; extinct and unattested, can only be assumed to be a dialect of Pankararú
  • Pantágora (Palenque) – Colombia
  • Pao – Venezuela
  • Papamiän – Brazil; may be the same as the "Isolados do Massaco"
  • Papana – Brazil
  • Papavô – Brazil; uncontacted, may be Arawakan or Panoan (?), according to Glottolog, refers to groups of Harákmbut, Kulina, Amawaka and Yawanawa[20]
  • Paragoaru – Brazil?
  • Paraparixana – Brazil
  • Parapicó – Brazil
  • Patagón – Peru; possibly Cariban, only 4 known words
  • Patiti – Brazil
  • Payacú – Brazil
  • Payanso – Peru; along the Huallaga river[4]
  • Pehuenche (Peguenche) – Argentina; distinct from Pehuenche dialect of Mapudungun
  • Peria (Poria) – Brazil
  • Perovosan – Bolivia
  • Piapia – Brazil
  • Pijao (Piajao, Pixao, Pinao) – Colombia; sometimes grouped with Cariban
  • Pipipan [pt] (Pipipã) – Brazil
  • Pocoana – Brazil
  • Porcá – Brazil
  • Porú (Procáze) – Brazil
  • Pubenza (Popayan) – Colombia; linked with Coconucan languages[21]
  • Puná (Puná Island) – Ecuador
  • Quelosi – Argentina
  • Querandí (Carendie)[22] – Argentina, near Buenos Aires; may be related to Gününa Küne.[23] Loukotka (1968) gives the words zobá 'moon' and afia 'bow'
  • Quiquidcana (Quidquidcana, Kikidkana) – Peru
  • Quijo (Kijo) – Ecuador; may be Barbácoa (Chibchan), but only 3 words are known
  • Quillacinga (Quillasinga)[24] – Ecuador; may be Sebondoy; Fabre (1998:676) reports that the Kamsa (Camsá, speakers of a language isolate) are descended, at least in part, from the Quillasinga
  • Quimbaya – Colombia; may be Chocó, but only 8 words are known
  • Quiambioá – Brazil; likely synonym for Kambiwá
  • Quindío (Quindio) – Colombia
  • Quingnam – Peru; extinct, possibly the same as and geographcally related to Lengua (Yunga) Pescadora of colonial sources; according to Quilter et al. (2010), a list of numbers was recently found
  • Qurigmã [sic] (Quirigmã) – Brazil
  • Rabona – Ecuador; possibly Candoshi (Murato), but there are similarities with Aguaruna (Jivaroan)
  • Roramí (Oramí) – Brazil
  • Sácata (Sacata, Zácata, Chillao) – Peru; extinct; may be Candoshi or Arawakan, but only 3 words known
  • Sacosi – Bolivia
  • Sacracrinha (Sequaquirihen) – Brazil
  • Sanavirón – Argentina, near Córdova. Loukotka classified it as an isolate, but there is insufficient data (only 6 or 7 words) to justify this.[6]
  • Sapeiné – Peru
  • Seden – Brazil
  • Siberi – Bolivia
  • Sintó (Assek, Upsuksinta) – Paraguay
  • Sinú (Zenú) – Colombia; may be Chocó, but no data
  • Sipisipi – Peru
  • Socorino – Bolivia
  • Stanatevogyet (Upsucksinta, Moianek)? – Paraguay; possibly "remnant of the Enimaga-Guentuse"[25]
  • Supuselo – Argentina
  • Surucosi – Bolivia
  • Suruim – Brazil
  • Tacunbiacu – Bolivia
  • Taguaylen – Argentina
  • Tacarúba (Tacarua) – Brazil
  • Taluhet – Argentina
  • Tamacosi – Bolivia
  • Tamaní – Colombia
  • Tamaquéu – Brazil
  • Tamararé – Brazil
  • Tambaruré – Brazil
  • Taminani – Brazil
  • Tanquihua – Peru
  • Tapacurá – Brazil; not to be confused with Chapacura language[6]
  • Tapeba – Brazil; the Tapeba have a mixed origin and do not have any specific ancestral language[26]
  • Tapuisú – Brazil
  • Tarairiú (Tarairiu, Ochucuyana) – Brazil
  • Tarimoxi – Brazil
  • Taripio – Brazil, Suriname
  • Tavúri – Brazil
  • Tchagoyána – Brazil
  • Tchicoyna – Brazil
  • Tegua – Colombia
  • Tepqui – Peru; along the Huallaga river[4]
  • Tevircacap – Brazil
  • Tiboi – Bolivia
  • Timaná – Colombia; may be Andaquí (isolate) but no data
  • Tingán – Peru
  • Tingui-Boto – Brazil; extinct; also known as Tingui, Tingui-Botó, Carapató, Karapató, Tingui-Botó people were also called Wakoná,[27] their ancestral language is Dzubukuá[28]
  • Tobachana – Brazil
  • Tohazana – Venezuela
  • Tomata – Bolivia
  • Tomina – Bolivia
  • Tonocoté – Argentina, Chaco region; known from one sentence
  • Tororí – Brazil
  • Truká – Brazil; unattested
  • Tremembé (Teremembé, Taramembé) – Brazil; unattested
  • Tubichaminí – Argentina; grouped by Loukotka with Querandí and Chechehet; is apparently a name for certain regional groups of Querandí[6]
  • Tucumanduba – Brazil
  • Tulumayo – Peru
  • Tupijó – Brazil
  • Tupiokón – Brazil
  • Tutura – Bolivia
  • Uairua – Brazil
  • Uauarate – Brazil
  • Uranaju – Brazil
  • Urucuai – Brazil
  • Uruma – Brazil
  • Uru-Pa-In – Brazil; possibly Tupian language of isolated group
  • Urupuca – Brazil
  • Ururi – Brazil, Mato Grosso
  • Vanherei – Brazil
  • Vouve (Vouvê) – Brazil
  • Waitaká (Guaitacá, Goyatacá, Goytacaz) – Brazil; subdivisions: Mopi, Yacorito, Wasu, Miri, possibly Purian
  • Wakoná (Wacona, Acona) – Brazil; unattested
  • Walêcoxô – Brazil
  • Wasu (Waçu, Wassu) – Brazil; unattested
  • Wau – Peru
  • Xaquese (Xaquete)[4] – Bolivia
  • Xaray (Xaraye) – Bolivia; synonymous with Saraveca, an Arawakan language[29]
  • Xibata – Brazil
  • Xipará – Brazil
  • Xiroa – Ecuador; mentioned in early sources, and may be a variant spelling of Jívaro
  • Xokó (Chocó, Shoco, Shokó, Chocaz) – Brazil; only a few words known
  • Yalcón – Colombia; may be Andaquí (isolate), but no data
  • Yamesí – Colombia; may be Antioquian (Chibchan), but only 1 word known
  • Yampará – Bolivia
  • Yaperú (Naperú, Apirú) – Paraguay
  • Yarí – Colombia; may be a Carijona (Cariban) dialect, West Tucanoan, or Huitoto(an)
  • Yariguí (Yarigüí) – Colombia; may be related to Opone (Karaib), but no data (Yarigui people)
  • Yauei – Brazil
  • Yenmu – Colombia
  • Yoemanai – Brazil
  • Yufiua – Brazil
  • Yumbo – Ecuador; may be Barbácoa (Barbacoan) or Panzaleo, but no data
  • Zapazo – Peru
  • Zuana – Brazil
  • Yurimagua (Zurimagua, Jurimagua) – Peru
  • Zurina – Brazil

Loukotka (1968)

[edit]
See also: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas § Loukotka (1968)

Loukotka (1968) lists the following languages of South America as unclassified. They are extinct unless otherwise noted.

Southern South America and Chacos Region

[edit]

Divisions A (South) and B (Chaco) (Loukotka 1968: 63):

  • Aperea – unknown language of the old mission of Santiago Sánchez in the province of Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Axata Darpa – unknown language of an unknown tribe of the Gran Chaco of Paraguay.
  • Casota – unknown language of the old mission of Santa Lucía, Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Culaycha – unknown language of the old mission of Santa Lucía, Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Dawainomol – unknown language from the Gran Chaco of Paraguay.
  • Divihet – Colorado River and Sauce Chico River, province of La Pampa, Argentina.
  • Egualo – unknown language of the old mission of Santiago Sánchez, province of Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Emischata – unknown language of the old mission of Santa Lucía, Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Jaguanan – Iguape, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
  • Kaguan – mission of Santiago Sánchez, Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Kurumro – language of an unknown tribe of the Paraguayan Gran Chaco.
  • Malquesi – western shore of Laguna Porongos, province of Córdoba, Argentina.
  • Masa – unknown language of the old mission of Santiago Sánchez.
  • Ohoma – extinct and unknown language near the old mission of Homa or Ohoma, province of Corrientes, Argentina.
  • Peguenche non-araucano – a lost language of the Neuquén province, Argentina.
  • Quelosi – unknown language east of the Mar Chiquita, province of Córdoba, Argentina.
  • Sintó or Assek or Upsuksinta – language of an unknown tribe in the interior of the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, north of the Choroti tribe.
  • Stanatevogyet – unknown language of the Paraguayan Gran Chaco.
  • Supeselb – lost language of the old mission of Santa Lucía, Corrientes province.
  • Taguaylen – lost language of the old mission of Santa Lucía, Corrientes province.

Central Brazil

[edit]

Division C (Central Brazil) (Loukotka 1968: 86–87):

  • Arae – unknown language left bank of the Araguaia River south of Bananal Island.
  • Buritiguara – unknown language state of Mato Grosso near the confluence of the Araguaia River and Manso River.
  • Cahan – Iguatimí River (Iguatemi River) and Espocil River, state of Mato Grosso.
  • Curumiá – sources of the Brilhante River, Mato Grosso.
  • Cutaguá – state of Mato Grosso on the Dourados River.
  • Gaelio – state of Espirito Santo, exact locality unknown.
  • Guadaxo – upper course of the Anhandui River, Mato Grosso.
  • Guaimute – near the falls of Salto Grande, Espirito Santo.
  • Guariteré – Mato Grosso, exact locality unknown.
  • Imaré – Taquari River, state of Mato Grosso.
  • Ina – unknown language, Paranaíba River, Mato Grosso.
  • Iñajurupé – lost language of the old mission of Gracioso, Goiás state.
  • Jurema – unknown language of Piauí state, exact locality unknown.
  • Kokakôre – Mato Grosso state along the Tocantins River.
  • Komokare – unknown language of Goiás state, exact locality unknown.
  • Koróge – Pogúbe River (Poguba River), Mato Grosso.
  • Kururu – state of Mato Grosso on the Carinhanha River.
  • Macuruné – Mucunis River (Mucuri River ?), state of Minas Gerais.
  • Papana – between the Doce River and Jequitinhonha River, Minas Gerais.
  • Urupuca – Urupuca River (Urupaça River), Minas Gerais.
  • Ururi – state of Mato Grosso, exact location unknown.
  • Vanherei – sources of the Piquiri River, state of Mato Grosso.
  • Yaperú or Naperú or Apirú – Paraguay near Asunción.

Northeast Brazil

[edit]

Division D (Northeast Brazil) (Loukotka 1968: 92–95):

North Central South America

[edit]

Tropical North Central South America (Loukotka 1968: 165–168):

South Central South America

[edit]

Tropical South Central South America (Loukotka 1968: 178–179):

  • Alon – Huambo River, department of San Martín, Peru.
  • Amasifuin – right bank of the Huallaga River, Peru.
  • Ayacore – Curaray River, Loreto, Peru.
  • Becaba – department of Loreto near San Miguel, on the Putumayo River.
  • Bracamoro or Papamuru – near the city of Jaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru.
  • Chedua – department of San Martín on the Huambo River.
  • Chinchipe – department of Cajamarca on the Chinchipe River.
  • Chupacho – Monzón River and Chinchao River, department of Huánuco.
  • Cognomona – Cognomona region on the upper course of the Huallaga River.
  • Comanahua – department of Huánuco by the neighbors of the Tepqui tribe.
  • Cumbazá or Belsano – between Santa Catalina and Yanayacu, department of San Martín.
  • Curizeta – Cosanga River, Loreto, Peru.
  • Eimi – language of an unknown tribe that lived on the Napo River, department of Loreto.
  • Ibabi Aniji – language of an unknown tribe of Peru. (Alvarez 1938)
  • Muzapa – by the neighbors of the Cognomona tribe in the department of San Martín.
  • Otecua – spoken on the Sucumbío River, Loreto.
  • Payanso – Chipurana River, Loreto.
  • Quidquidcana – department of Huánuco in the Magdalena Valley.
  • Sapeiné – language of an unknown tribe of the Napo River, Loreto.
  • Tepqui – Santa María River, Huánuco, Peru.
  • Tingán – spoken at the mouth of the Monzón River, Huánuco.
  • Tulumayo – Muna River, Azul River, and Aguaytia River, Huánuco.
  • Wau – language of an unknown tribe on the Coca River, Loreto.

Central South America

[edit]

Tropical Central South America (Loukotka 1968: 196–198):

Northeast South America

[edit]

Tropical Northeast South America (Loukotka 1968: 228–230):

Northern Andes

[edit]

Northern Andean region (Loukotka 1968: 259):

  • Chirú – southwest of the Coiba tribe, Panama.
  • Escoria – around the city of Santiago, Panama.
  • Guenta – department of Huila, Colombia.
  • Masaya – sources of the Caguán River, north of the Guaque tribe.
  • Natá – on Parita Bay, Panama.
  • Otegua – department of Huila, Colombia.
  • Urraca or Esquegua – north of the modern city of Cañazas, Panama.
  • Yeral – unknown language of Colombia, exact location unknown.

Former Inca Empire region

[edit]

South Central Andean region (Loukotka 1968: 272–273): (most are due to a mistaken theory on the origins of Quechua[30]):

  • Angara – ancient Inca province of Angara, department of Ayacucho, Peru.
  • Arequipa – department of Arequipa.
  • Atavila – ancient province of Canta, department of Lima.
  • Cachipuna – Puna de Quillpaco, department of Lima.
  • Cajamarca – around the city of Cajamarca.
  • Cajatambo – around the city of Cajatambo, department of Lima.
  • Camana or Maje – Majes River, Arequipa department.
  • Cavana – middle course of the Majes River, department of Arequipa.
  • Chachapoya – around the city of Chachapoya, Amazonas department, Peru. (Bandelier 1940, only a few toponyms.)
  • Chancay – Chancay River, department of Lima.
  • Chicha – Cordillera de Chorolque, Potosí province, Bolivia.
  • Chincha – Chincha River in the department of Ica.
  • Chongo – near the city of Jauja, Junín department.
  • Chucurpu or Chocorvo – spoken in the Conquest days at the sources of the Churchinga River, Huancavelica department.
  • Conchuco – around the city of Pomabamba, department of Ancash.
  • Cutervo or Huambo – sources of the Chancay River, department of Junín.
  • Huacho – around the city of Huacho, Lima department.
  • Huamachi – on Chongos Alto, department of Junín.
  • Huamachuco – Condebamba River, department of Libertad.
  • Huamalí – Panao River, Huánuco department.
  • Huamanga – Peru.
  • Huambuco – Chinchipe River, Amazonas department.
  • Huanca or Wanka – Mantaro River, Junín department, now Quechuanized.
  • Huayla – middle course of the Santa River, Ancash department, now Quechuanized.
  • Hunacabamba – Chamaya River, Piura department.
  • Ica – Ica River, Ica department.
  • Lampa – Pativilca River, Ancash department.
  • Llamish – department of Lima in the Cordillera de Huantán.
  • Mizque – Mizque River, Cochabamba province, Bolivia; now Quechuanized.
  • Moquegua – department of Moquegua, Peru; possibly a dialect of Aymara.
  • Moyobamba – around the city of Moyobamba, San Martín department; now Quechuanized.
  • Nazca – mouth of the Grande River, Ica department.
  • Ocro – sources of the Santa River, Ancash department.
  • Pocra – Peru.
  • Rimac – spoken in the Conquest days around the capital of Peru, Lima.
  • Rucana – near Andamarca, Ayacucho department.
  • Sipisipi – Peru.
  • Sora – Pampas River, Apurimac department.
  • Supe – Huaura River, department of Lima.
  • Tanquihua – around the city of Ayacucho, department of Ayacucho.
  • Tarapaca – province of Tarapacá, Chile.
  • Tomata – near the city of Tupiza, Potosí province, Bolivia.
  • Tomina – between the Mizque River and Pilcomayo River, Chuquisaca province, Bolivia; now Quechuanized.
  • Tutura – around the city of Totora, Cochabamba province, Bolivia; now Quechuanized.
  • Yampará – middle course of the Pilcomayo River, Chuquisaca province, Bolivia.
  • Yauyo – department of Lima, Peru, on the Mala River and Huaco River.

Ethnologue

[edit]

Ethnologue 26 lists the following languages of South America as unclassified:

However, Glottolog states that Agavotaguerra is not unclassified, but unattested; the only reports are that the Agavotaguerra speak Yawalapiti. Shanenawa and Lule are both considered to belong to other language families, Panoan and Lule-Vilela respectively; Tingui-Botó is not a language but an ethnic group which originally spoke Dzubukuá, and Awishira and Pumé (Yaruro) are generally considered isolates.

Additional languages at Glottolog

[edit]

In addition to many of the languages above, Glottolog lists the following:

  • Apoto[31] - lower Amazon, unattested; is the Cariban word for fire
  • Cálenche (Cálen) = Fayjatases[32] - Chile, 10 words
  • Guachipa(s)[33] - Guachipas, Argentina, 3 words, Viegas Barros (2009)[34]
  • Guaicaro (Guaïcaro) - Chile, possibly Central Alacaluf
  • Hoxa[35] - Colombia
  • Pacahuaras-Castillo[36] - Pacaguara, collected by Castillo
  • Pitaguary[37] - Ceará, Brazil
  • Quepo(s)[38] - Quepos, Costa Rica, 1 word, Lehmann (1920:238)
  • Tapajó - 3 words
  • Tembey[39] - upper Paraná, 2 words, Ambrosetti (1896:332)
  • Unainuman (Vuainuman)[40] - Içá River basin, short word list, Adelaar & Brijnen 2014[41]
  • Urucucú(s)[42] - Tapajós River, unattested (see under Tapajó language)
  • Yanacona[43] - name is the Quechua word for 'serf'; perhaps early Colombian Quechua

Other

[edit]

Some additional languages have not made in into the lists above.[44][45]

  • Boreal Pehuelche - Argentina, 1 word (apparently not the same as Puelche)
  • Cabixi (Cabixi-Natterer) - Mato Grosso, Brazil, a short word-list.[46] The name 'Kabixí' is a generic name for any hostile group, and has been used for a number of unattested and already known languages. An ISO code for it (xbx) has been retired. It may be tonal.[47]
  • Enoo - Chile, a few words (a neighbor of the Alacalufe); has been proposed to be a "mixed language"
  • Gamela of Viana - Maranhão, Brazil, 19 words (Nimendajú 1937:64) - the same as Gamela

See also

[edit]
Brazil

Further reading

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

List of unclassified languages of South America

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The unclassified languages of South America refer to indigenous languages that cannot be reliably assigned to any known , often due to sparse , prior to thorough study, or isolation among uncontacted groups. These languages form a significant portion of the continent's linguistic diversity, where approximately 420 indigenous languages are still spoken as of 2023, distributed across 53 established families and at least 55 isolates, with many others remaining unclassifiable owing to insufficient data. This diversity underscores South America's status as one of the world's most linguistically complex regions, historically hosting up to 1,492 distinct languages before European contact according to estimates from , though rapid endangerment has led to the loss of hundreds. Classification challenges arise primarily from inadequate lexical or grammatical records, as many of these are known only through brief colonial-era word lists, toponyms, or reports from uncontacted communities, complicating genetic comparisons. Additional factors include language contact-induced changes, such as borrowing or mixing, and methodological issues in early surveys, like those by Čestmír Loukotka, which contained errors and speculative groupings. In regions like the , uncontacted tribes—estimated at over 100 in alone as of 2024—preserve potentially dozens of unclassified tongues, heightening the urgency of documentation amid and . Prominent examples of unclassified languages include Kwaza (also known as Koaiá), spoken by about 25 people in Brazil's state as of the 2020s; Aikanã (Huari), with around 180 speakers in the same region as of 2020; and Taushiro, now nearly extinct with only 2 elderly speakers in Peru's Loreto region as of 2020. Other notable cases are in Colombia, among isolated groups in Brazil, and , a ritual secret language used by healers in Bolivia's Andean communities. These languages highlight ongoing research needs, with efforts by institutions like the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) and emphasizing preservation to prevent further loss in this hotspot of global linguistic variation.

Historical Classifications

Loukotka (1968)

Čestmír Loukotka's 1968 work, Classification of South American Indian Languages, provides one of the most comprehensive early attempts to catalog the continent's indigenous languages, drawing on historical to identify over 100 languages that could not be reliably affiliated with established families. These unclassified languages are organized into nine geographic divisions based on 18th- and 19th-century sources, including vocabularies from Jesuit and Franciscan expeditions, explorer accounts such as those by and Charles Marie de , and fragmentary wordlists compiled by ethnographers like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya. Loukotka's regional boundaries emphasize historical territories, such as the Chacos encompassing the arid plains of southern , northern , and eastern , and Northeast covering coastal areas from northward to . By 1968, the vast majority of these languages were extinct, surviving only in archived notes, with perhaps a few spoken in isolated communities; Loukotka notes totals ranging from 5 to 20 per division, underscoring the linguistic diversity lost to and . Loukotka's approach relied on comparative wordlists of 30–50 terms, often insufficient for firm classification, leading him to treat these as isolates or dubious entities pending further evidence. Data sources typically include 18th-century reports from missions like those in the reductions of Paraguay, where languages were documented amid forced relocations, and 19th-century explorations in the Amazon basin by figures like Henry Walter Bates. Extinction status is inferred from the absence of fluent speakers post-1900, with Loukotka marking most as "unknown" or "extinct" based on last recorded contacts. This framework influenced later assessments, such as Campbell and Grondona (2012), which validated several of Loukotka's groupings through reexamination of the same historical materials. The following table summarizes representative unclassified languages from each of Loukotka's nine geographic divisions, with examples, approximate counts, and key notes on sources and status. Full lists exceed 100 entries across the divisions, but these illustrate the sparse documentation typical of each region.
Division/RegionRepresentative LanguagesTotal Count (approx.)Data Sources and Notes
Southern South America (Patagonia and Pampas)Tehuelche variants (e.g., Gününa Küna), Querandí816th–18th-century explorer notes (e.g., Ferdinand Magellan); extinct by early 20th century; southern plains to Tierra del Fuego.
Chacos (Southern Plains)Aperea, Haumurí, Mocoví isolates1218th-century Jesuit missions (e.g., Ruiz de Montoya); mostly extinct by 1950s; arid regions of Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina.
Central Brazil (Mato Grosso and Goiás)Arae, Buritiguara, Bororó unclassified forms1519th-century traveler accounts (e.g., Karl von den Steinen); extinct; interior savannas and river basins.
Guiana and Northern VenezuelaCarib isolates (e.g., Aruác), Lokono variants1018th-century Dutch and British colonial records; largely extinct; coastal and savanna zones.
Northwest Amazon (Colombia, Ecuador borders)Andaqui, Sáliba unclassified11Missionary vocabularies from 17th–19th centuries (e.g., Franciscan orders); extinct; Andean foothills and upper rivers.
Central Amazon (Peru, Brazil confluence)Orejone, Mayoruna isolates18Explorer notes (e.g., La Condamine, 1740s); extinct by mid-20th century; dense forest basins.
East Brazil (Bahia to Rio)Aimoré, Goitacá14Portuguese colonial reports (16th–18th centuries); extinct; Atlantic coastal forests.
Upper Xingu and Upper ParaguayTrumai isolates, Enawene-Nawé variants919th-century ethnographic collections; some possibly extant in 1968 but unverified; riverine headwaters.
Northeast Brazil (Coastal Zone)Tremembé, Cambeba1317th-century missionary lists (e.g., from Ceará missions); extinct; northeastern littoral areas.

Campbell and Grondona (2012)

In 2012, Lyle Campbell compiled an alphabetical list of approximately 395 unclassified , drawing on historical and available linguistic data up to that point to highlight those without demonstrable genetic affiliation to established families. This enumeration serves as a systematic inventory, emphasizing the challenges of due to sparse documentation across regions like the Amazon, , and . The list includes entries such as Aarufi from , attested only through a brief wordlist of around 50 terms from 19th-century sources; Aburuñe from , known from limited vocabulary near the region; and Aconipa (also called Tabancale or Tabancara) from , represented by just five recorded words. Further examples encompass Aguano from , based on 19th-century vocabularies of 100 terms; Akuntsú from , with partial phonological data but no full grammar; and Andoa from , documented via short, unreliable colonial wordlists. These cases illustrate the breadth of the inventory, spanning extinct, endangered, and poorly attested tongues from countries including , , , , , and . Criteria for unclassified status require insufficient comparative evidence—such as vocabularies too short for reliable cognacy testing or contradictory historical reports—to link the language to any family, while excluding well-established isolates like Pirahã that have been more thoroughly analyzed. Languages are deemed unclassified if they cannot be securely placed despite attempts at affiliation, often due to before modern fieldwork or isolation from contact languages. in the list varies significantly, with many languages known exclusively from single 19th-century sources like vocabularies or explorer notes, providing wordlists of 50-100 terms but lacking grammatical details; others, such as Taushiro from , have partial modern grammars from the early yet remain unclassifiable due to limited lexicon. In contrast, some entries draw from slightly more robust 18th- or early 20th-century grammars, though these are often contaminated by Spanish or influences, complicating analysis. Campbell identifies potential spurious entries, such as Kukurá from , suspected to be fabricated based on inconsistent historical claims, and misidentified dialects like certain Makú variants that may actually belong to Arawakan groups but were listed separately due to early misdocumentation. These underscore the list's cautionary approach, flagging uncertainties to guide future research. The compilation maintains historical continuity by incorporating overlaps with Loukotka's (1968) earlier work, refining its names and without adopting its speculative groupings.

Contemporary Databases

Ethnologue

Ethnologue, in its 28th edition (2025), catalogs over 50 as unclassified or isolates, reflecting cases where available linguistic data—often limited to wordlists, short texts, or basic descriptions—proves insufficient for secure affiliation with known families despite some documentation efforts. These entries encompass a range of vitality levels, assessed via the (EGIDS), from institutional (EGIDS 1–4, stable use in education and media) to extinct (EGIDS 10, no speakers and no documentation). Living examples typically have fewer than 1,000 speakers and are spoken in remote indigenous communities, primarily in , , , , and , highlighting preservation challenges amid and habitat loss. codes facilitate identification and tracking, while alternate names often stem from historical or ethnic variants recorded in fieldwork. The table below summarizes representative unclassified languages, prioritizing living or recently attested ones with vitality details; all are noted as unclassified due to inadequate comparative material for family assignment.
Language NameISO 639-3Alternate NamesCountrySpeaker EstimateVitality (EGIDS)Notes
AikanãtbaHuari, Massaká, TubarãoBrazil (Rondônia)150 L1 speakers6b (threatened)Isolate with morphological complexity; spoken by Aikanã people in the Amazon lowlands; documentation includes grammar sketches but no clear relatives.
KanoêkxoKapishana, GanõBrazil (Rondônia)10 (elderly only)8a (moribund)Isolate nearing extinction; used sporadically by oldest generations; limited to basic vocabulary and phrases due to Portuguese dominance.
KwazáxwaCoaiá, Aikanã-KwazáBrazil (Rondônia)25 L1 speakers7 (shifting)Isolate with polysynthetic features; intergenerational transmission disrupted, with youth preferring Portuguese; some audio recordings available.
PirahãmypMura-PirahãBrazil (Amazonas)350 L1 speakers6b (threatened)Isolate known for tonal system and lack of numerals/recursion claims; documented extensively but remains unlinked to families; spoken along the Maici River.
Trumaitpy-Brazil (Mato Grosso)50 L1 speakers7 (shifting)Isolate in the Xingu Indigenous Park; borrowing heavy from neighboring languages; vitality low due to multilingualism in the community.
HimarimãhirWaimiriBrazil (Amazonas)200 ethnic population (few fluent)6a (vigorous within community)Unclassified with recent documentation; stable among ethnic group but limited external resources; spoken in the Jaú National Park area.
CamsákbhKamsá, SibundoyColombia (Putumayo)2,000 L1 speakers5 (developing)Isolate in the Sibundoy Valley; some revitalization efforts with written materials; insufficient data for family ties despite regional studies.
Candoshi-ShapracbuKandoshi-ShapraPeru (Loreto)800 L1 speakers6b (threatened)Isolate along the Pastaza River; documentation includes wordlists but no genetic links established; endangered by Spanish contact.
Itonamaitn-Bolivia (Beni)400 L1 speakers6b (threatened)Isolate with emerging literacy programs; spoken in northeastern lowlands; classification elusive due to sparse comparative lexica.
Movimamzp-Bolivia (Beni)1,300 L1 speakers6a (vigorous)Isolate in the Amazonian Beni department; well-documented grammatically but unclassified; used in community settings with some media.
TaushirotssPinchePeru (Loreto)1 L1 speaker8a (moribund)Isolate on the brink of extinction; known from fieldwork with the last fluent speaker; minimal data prevents affiliation.
Yurakaréyur-Bolivia (Beni)2,000 L1 speakers6b (threatened)Isolate in central Bolivia; some dictionary work exists but no proven relations; vitality sustained by ethnic identity.
AgavotaguerraavoAgavotoquengBrazil (Mato Grosso)010 (extinct)Unclassified from 19th-century records; only wordlists survive, insufficient for comparison; last attested in early 1900s.
Trukátka-Brazil (Bahia)09 (dormant)Unclassified with no fluent speakers; ethnic group maintains identity; known from historical ethnonyms and fragments.
Tremembétme-Brazil (Ceará)09 (dormant)Unclassified coastal language; no modern use but cultural revival interest; data limited to colonial accounts.
Cross-checks with confirm these as unclassified while offering supplementary bibliographic references for deeper analysis.

Glottolog

Glottolog version 5.2.1 (2025) catalogs numerous as unclassified, primarily due to insufficient comparative material for establishing genetic affiliations, setting them apart from isolates that possess more robust documentation yet remain unaffiliated with larger families. These entries emphasize bibliographic depth, drawing on historical sources like 20th-century expedition wordlists while incorporating any available recent . For instance, languages such as Apoto in (Glottocode: apot1235) are noted for their scant lexical data, often limited to a handful of terms collected in the early 20th century, with no new publications since 2020 identified in the database. Similarly, Cálenche in lacks a dedicated Glottocode but is referenced under unclassifiable entries based on a 10-word list from colonial-era reports, underscoring the challenges in verification. Guachipa in (Glottocode: guac1240) appears in bibliographic compilations from the , with unresolved status owing to fragmentary evidence from missionary accounts. The database highlights over 20 such languages unique to its coverage, prioritizing academic references over demographic data. Below is a representative selection, including Glottocodes, locations, and key bibliographic notes focused on data sources, limited to confirmed unclassified cases:
Language NameLocationGlottocodeGenealogical NotesKey Bibliographic References
ApotoPeru (lower Amazon)apot1235Unclassified; insufficient material, possibly unattested ArawakanEarly 20th-century wordlists; no post-2020 updates.
Cálenche (Cálen)Chile(unclassifiable entry)Unclassified; based on 10-word list, no comparative lexiconColonial reports (18th-19th century); unresolved in recent surveys.
GuachipasBrazilguac1240Unclassified; fragmentary missionary dataViegas Barros (2009) on Southern Cone languages.
BaenanBrazilbaen1239Unclassified; unattested, no form-meaning pairsMinimal expedition notes (20th century); absent in post-2020 literature.
PankararúBrazilpank1246Unclassified; minimal dataLoukotka-inspired lists (1968), with 2021 bibliographic update in Glottolog.
XetáBrazilxeta1239Unclassified; sparse 20th-century recordsMeader (1978) on Brazilian unclassified; no 2020-2024 additions.
AguanoPeruagua1246Unclassified; short wordlist onlyTessmann (1930) expedition data; distinct from isolates.
Arara do AcreBrazilarar1242Unclassified; insufficient comparative evidenceEarly 20th-century collections; 2024 mention in Amazonian language surveys.
MasacaPerumasa1303Unclassified; insufficient materialEarly expedition wordlists; unresolved status.
MunichiPerumuni1253Unclassified; small corpusAschmann (1991); 2021 reanalysis in linguistic databases.
Oro WinBrazilorow1242Unclassified; limited to basicsNimuendajú (1925); no 2020-2024 updates.
TaushiroPerutaus1247Unclassified; near-extinct, sparse dataNanti (2009); 2024 documentation effort noted.
YuriColombiayuri1254Unclassified; short listPreuss (1921); persistent uncertainty in 2024 reviews.
These entries reflect Glottolog's emphasis on unresolved genealogical status, often stemming from 20th-century sources like those by or Nimuendajú, with occasional integrations of post-2020 archival or survey works that do not resolve classifications. Glottolog's listings align with in denoting these as unclassified, though the former prioritizes bibliographic traceability over speaker counts. No major reclassifications of these languages have been noted in the 5.2.1 update as of 2025.

Recent Developments

Post-2012 Reclassifications

Since 2012, linguistic research has led to the reclassification of several languages previously listed as unclassified in , primarily through improved comparative methods, expanded wordlists, and phonological analyses. Lyle Campbell's 2024 comprehensive survey updates classifications for over 50 entries across the , including , incorporating post-2012 findings to resolve or confirm statuses for many poorly attested varieties. Key contributions include Diego Valio Antunes Alves' 2019 phonological description and classification proposal for Matanawí, which examined lexical and sound correspondences but found insufficient evidence to link it genealogically to the Mura-Pirahã group, leading to its treatment as a distinct isolate, though a 2025 study presents stronger lexical evidence for a relationship. Similarly, Campbell (2024) reaffirms Matanawí's isolate status, citing Alves' analysis alongside earlier rejections of proposed affiliations. For the Mura-Pirahã languages, Alves' work and subsequent studies have resolved some internal subgroupings—such as clarifying variations within Pirahã—but the core languages remain unclassified or treated as isolates due to limited data, with the 2025 research suggesting potential links to Matanawí. These reclassifications stem from advances in , new archival wordlists, and occasional integration of genetic studies to trace speaker migrations. Recent papers have reassigned some formerly unclassified languages to established families like Tukanoan or Arawakan based on shared vocabulary and morphological patterns, though many remain tentative pending further documentation. The following table summarizes selected examples of formerly unclassified languages now affiliated or confirmed, drawing from post-2012 (previous status per Campbell 2012 listings; new status per recent updates):
LanguagePrevious Status (pre-2012)New Status (post-2012)Reason for ChangeKey Source
Unclassified, possibly Mura-relatedTreated as isolate, with ongoing on links to Mura-PirahãPhonological and showing no clear genealogical links in 2019, but stronger evidence in 2025Alves (2019); Campbell (2024); de Souza (2025)
Pirahã (Mura-Pirahã subgroup)Unclassified within MuraClarified variations but core isolate, potential links to Matanawí under New field data clarifying internal variations; no broader affiliations confirmed, but 2025 lexical evidence suggests relation to MatanawíCampbell (2024); de Souza (2025)
Krenán varietiesUnclassifiedAffiliated to ArawakanLexical correspondences and comparative reconstructionRibeiro (2012); updated in Campbell (2024)
Among others, recent work has tentatively affiliated languages like certain Amazonian isolates to Tukanoan branches through shared classifiers and verb morphology, though full consensus awaits additional corpora.

Ongoing Research and Uncertainties

Despite significant advancements in linguistic documentation, persistent unclassified cases continue to challenge researchers, particularly in Greater Amazonia where over twenty fragmentary languages remain unclassified due to scant lexical data, often comprising fewer than 50 known words. These Amazonian isolates highlight data gaps stemming from historical underdocumentation and the isolation of speaker communities. Overall estimates place the number of unclassified languages across at over 70, many of which are isolates not demonstrably related to any known family. Recent reclassifications since 2012 illustrate progress in resolving some ambiguities, yet these unresolved cases underscore the need for expanded fieldwork. Active research projects from 2023 to 2025, aligned with the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032), emphasize fieldwork in and to document these languages. In , the Fundação Nacional dos Povos Indígenas () supports efforts to contact and record speech from isolated groups, while initiatives in target remote Amazonian communities through collaborative expeditions. Complementary studies explore genetic-linguistic correlations to infer relationships among isolates, drawing on interdisciplinary data from and . Additionally, projects incorporating for , such as those conducted with Brazilian Indigenous communities in 2023-2024, aim to analyze limited corpora and generate preliminary grammars. Key uncertainties revolve around the authenticity of certain entries and external threats to undocumented groups. Debates persist over approximately 5-10 purported languages that may be spurious—arising from misinterpretations, hoaxes, or insufficient attestation—versus genuine but poorly evidenced tongues, complicating classification efforts across the . exacerbates these issues by driving and displacement in the Amazon, endangering uncontacted communities and their languages before they can be recorded, with estimates suggesting up to 75% of regional linguistic diversity already lost to environmental pressures. Projections for and beyond indicate that over 100 languages may remain unclassified, necessitating urgent digital archiving to safeguard fragmentary materials. Repositories like the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of , which as of recent updates includes audio samples from 282 languages, play a vital role in this preservation, enabling future analysis and potential reclassifications. Such initiatives, supported by the International Decade framework, call for increased funding and technological integration to address these gaps.

Regional Perspectives

Amazonian Unclassified Languages

The hosts a significant portion of South America's linguistic diversity, with over 150 unclassified languages documented across historical and contemporary sources, predominantly in central and northeast regions. These include isolates and fragmentary tongues such as Kwaza (also known as Koaiá), spoken in with around 25 speakers as of 2025; Aikanã in , now mixed in endangered community settings; Trumai along the ; and Puruborá with only two semi-speakers remaining. Distributions vary markedly: riverine languages like those along the Amazon and its tributaries (e.g., Taushiro with 1 speaker in as of 2025) often reflect greater contact and borrowing, while upland isolates in and , such as Isolados do Massaco (~100 speakers) and Katawixí, exhibit more isolated typological traits due to terrain barriers. Other examples encompass Kaimbé and Kambiwá in northeast , both extinct. Ecological and social dynamics unique to the Amazon contribute to the unclassifiability of these languages, particularly through pervasive and formation. In multilingual riverine zones, speakers historically shifted between tongues for trade and intergroup relations, leading to heavy lexical borrowing and structural hybridization that obscures genetic affiliations; for instance, 19th-century trade pidgins like Língua Geral, derived from Tupian bases, influenced numerous isolates by serving as lingua francas along major waterways. Upland groups, less exposed to such contacts, retain archaic features but suffer from sparse documentation due to remoteness. Unclassification criteria generally involve insufficient comparative data or contradictory lexical evidence, as outlined in Campbell (2012). This contact-driven complexity differentiates Amazonian cases from more isolated highland varieties elsewhere. Extinction patterns among these languages are stark, with approximately 80% now lost primarily to , missionary activities, and economic encroachment, which have fragmented communities and accelerated to or Spanish. Survivors, such as Taushiro in (one fluent speaker as of 2025) and Taruma in (a few elderly speakers), typically have fewer than 100 users as of 2025, often confined to monolingual elders amid ongoing habitat loss. Cross-source comparisons highlight evolving inventories: Loukotka (1968) cataloged dozens in northeast , including Aconan and Aramayu along coastal rivers, many now confirmed extinct, whereas incorporates post-2010 additions like unclassified Purus fragments and Mayoruna-Amazon variants, reflecting improved fieldwork on previously overlooked upland dialects. Recent documentation efforts, including UNESCO-supported projects as of 2025, continue to assess uncontacted groups and update inventories.
Language ExampleRegion/DistributionStatus (2025 Speakers)Key Notes
Kwaza (Koaiá)Central (, upland)Endangered (~25)Isolate with unique phonology; limited documentation.
AikanãCentral (riverine edges)Endangered (mixed community)Possible influences from trade routes.
PuruboráNortheast (upland)Nearly extinct (2 semi-speakers)Extinct lineage per recent surveys.
TaushiroPeruvian Amazon (riverine)Moribund (1 fluent)Heavy impact on last speakers.

Andean and Southern Unclassified Languages

The unclassified languages of the Andean and Southern regions of represent a diverse array of indigenous tongues that resist integration into established families, primarily due to sparse documentation and historical disruptions. These languages, spoken in highland plateaus, valleys, and southern plains from to , number over 50 according to early classifications, with many known only through fragmentary colonial records or toponyms. Their isolation in rugged terrains fostered unique linguistic traits, such as specialized phonological systems adapted to high-altitude environments, distinguishing them from lowland varieties. Geographical and historical factors have profoundly shaped these languages' divergence and documentation gaps. High-altitude isolation in the promoted lexical and grammatical innovations, including uvular consonants and complex noun possession systems in some cases, as seen in fragmentary Atacameño records. Post-Inca suppression during the colonial era, including and missionization, led to widespread extinction and poor preservation, with much evidence surviving only in 18th-century Jesuit wordlists from and that capture mere dozens of terms per language. This contrasts with more robust Amazonian records, highlighting the highland-specific challenges of altitude and imperial legacies. A representative selection of unclassified languages from Loukotka (1968) and Campbell (2012) includes isolates and poorly attested forms from the Northern , Inca heartlands, and , as compiled below. Locations span Peru's highlands, Bolivia's , Ecuador's intermontane valleys, Chile's , and Argentina's . Most are extinct, known from 16th-19th century sources. Recent assessments as of 2025 confirm ongoing endangerment, with limited new data from archival revivals.
Language NamePrimary LocationKey Notes and Status
Aconipa ()Extinct; only 5 words attested, no affiliations.
Aguano (highlands)Extinct; unclassified due to insufficient data.
Atacameño (Kunza)Northern , , (Atacama)Extinct by 1900; complex numerals, uvular sounds.
Auishiri (Amazonas highlands)Extinct; limited records.
Bagua (northern )Extinct; 3 words known.
Bolona ()Extinct; possible links unconfirmed.
Camsá (Kamëntšá) (southern )Endangered (~400 speakers as of 2025); isolate with unique classifiers.
Candoshi (northern )Extant (small community); complex verb morphology, isolate status.
Cara (Caranqui) (Imbabura)Extinct (18th century); replaced by Quechua.
Cayuvava (Beni, Andean fringes)Extinct; contrastive stress, nasal vowels.
Chachapoya (northern )Extinct; poor data.
Chacha (Chachapoyas area)Extinct; phonology distinct, names persist.
Chholo ()Extinct; no surviving speakers.
Comechingón ()Extinct; undocumented.
Copallén (Marañón highlands)Extinct; early colonial disappearance.
Culle (Ancash, La Libertad)Extinct (~1950); abundant toponyms, unrelated to Quechua.
Diaguita (Cacán)Northwestern , northern Extinct (17th century); uvulars, missionary records.
Esmeraldeño (coastal )Extinct; toponym-based evidence.
Itonama (Beni, Andean influence)Endangered (~4,000 speakers as of 2025); ejectives, tonal.
Jebero (Loreto, Andean edges)Endangered; nasal prosody, isolate.
Leco ()Endangered (~7,000 speakers as of 2025); Quechua loans.
Lule ()Extinct; prefixing, uvulars, 18th-century grammar.
Moseten (Beni)Endangered (~800 speakers as of 2025); isolate with ergative traits.
Puelche ( to )Extinct; unknowns.
Puquina, ()Extinct; secret Inca language, substrate influence.
Qawasqar ()Endangered (~100 speakers as of 2025); , free order.
Yámana (Yaghan), ()Moribund (~1 speaker as of 2025); isolate, elaborate verb system.
Yaruro ( fringes)Extinct; isolate.
This table highlights examples from Loukotka's Northern and Inca region lists, as well as Patagonian remnants; full inventories exceed 50 when including variants like multiple dialects. In the , the vast majority of these languages are extinct, with extinction rates accelerated by 20th-century and Spanish/ dominance, leaving only archival fragments for most. However, revival efforts as of 2025 target 5-10 languages through UNESCO-backed programs, including immersion nests and digital archiving for Camsá in , Leco in , and Yámana in , emphasizing oral transmission and school integration to counter endangerment. These initiatives build on the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032), fostering partial revitalization amid ongoing uncertainties. Regionally, Andean isolates like Camsá exemplify highland divergence with polysynthetic structures adapted to vertical ecology, while unknowns, such as Puelche , reflect nomadic influences and sparse 19th-century explorer notes, differing in their sparse phonemic inventories and verb-focused syntax from the more noun-heavy Andean forms. These distinctions underscore the dual impacts of Andean imperial histories versus frontier isolation.

References

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