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Jacques Tits
Jacques Tits
Jacques Tits
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Jacques Tits (French: [ʒak tits]) (12 August 1930 – 5 December 2021) was a Belgian-born French mathematician who worked on group theory and incidence geometry. He introduced Tits buildings, the Tits alternative, the Tits group, and the Tits metric.

Key Information

Early life and education

[edit]

Tits was born in Uccle, Belgium to Léon Tits, a professor, and Lousia André. Jacques attended the Athénée of Uccle and the Free University of Brussels. His thesis advisor was Paul Libois [fr], and Tits graduated with his doctorate in 1950 with the dissertation Généralisation des groupes projectifs basés sur la notion de transitivité.[1]

Career

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Tits held professorships at the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) (1962–1964), the University of Bonn (1964–1974) and the Collège de France in Paris, until becoming emeritus in 2000. He changed his citizenship to French in 1974 in order to teach at the Collège de France, which at that point required French citizenship. Because Belgian nationality law did not allow dual nationality at the time, he renounced his Belgian citizenship.[1]

Tits was an "honorary" member of the Nicolas Bourbaki group; as such, he helped popularize H.S.M. Coxeter's work, introducing terms such as Coxeter number, Coxeter group, and Coxeter graph.[2]

Death

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Tits died on 5 December 2021, at the age of 91[1] in the 13th arrondissement, Paris.[3]

Awards and honors

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Tits received the Wolf Prize in Mathematics in 1993, the Cantor Medal from the Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung (German Mathematical Society) in 1996, and the German distinction "Pour le Mérite". In 2008 he was awarded the Abel Prize, along with John Griggs Thompson, "for their profound achievements in algebra and in particular for shaping modern group theory".[4]

Tits became a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1979.[1] He was a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.[5] He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1988.[6]

Contributions

[edit]

He introduced the theory of buildings (sometimes known as Tits buildings), which are combinatorial structures on which groups act, particularly in algebraic group theory (including finite groups, and groups defined over the p-adic numbers). The related theory of (B, N) pairs is a basic tool in the theory of groups of Lie type. Of particular importance is his classification of all irreducible buildings of spherical type and rank at least three, which involved classifying all polar spaces of rank at least three. The existence of these buildings initially depended on the existence of a group of Lie type in each case, but in joint work with Mark Ronan he constructed those of rank at least four independently, yielding the groups directly. In the rank-2 case spherical building are generalized n-gons, and in joint work with Richard Weiss he classified these when they admit a suitable group of symmetries (the so-called Moufang polygons). In collaboration with François Bruhat he developed the theory of affine buildings, and later he classified all irreducible buildings of affine type and rank at least four.[7]

Another of his well-known theorems is the "Tits alternative": if G is a finitely generated subgroup of a linear group, then either G has a solvable subgroup of finite index or it has a free subgroup of rank 2.[8]

The Tits group and the Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction are named after him. He introduced the Kneser–Tits conjecture.[9][10]

Publications

[edit]
  • Tits, Jacques (1964). "Algebraic and abstract simple groups". Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 80 (2): 313–329. doi:10.2307/1970394. ISSN 0003-486X. JSTOR 1970394. MR 0164968.
  • Tits, Jacques (1974). Buildings of spherical type and finite BN-pairs. Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Vol. 386. Vol. 386. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-38349-9. ISBN 978-3-540-06757-3. MR 0470099.[11]
  • Tits, Jacques; Weiss, Richard M. (2002). Moufang polygons. Springer Monographs in Mathematics. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-43714-7. MR 1938841.
  • J. Tits, Oeuvres - Collected Works, 4 vol., Europ. Math. Soc., 2013. J. Tits, Résumés des cours au Collège de France, S.M.F., Doc.Math. 12, 2013.

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Jacques Tits

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from Grokipedia
Jacques Tits (1930–2021) was a Belgian-born French mathematician whose groundbreaking contributions to group theory, algebraic groups, and incidence geometry profoundly shaped modern algebra and its intersections with geometry. Born on August 12, 1930, in Uccle, a suburb of Brussels, Belgium, Tits earned his doctorate from the Free University of Brussels in 1950 at the remarkably young age of 20, under the supervision of Paul Libois. He began his academic career as an assistant at the University of Brussels in 1956, advancing to professor there from 1962 to 1964, before holding positions at the University of Bonn (1964–1973) and then as the inaugural holder of the Chair of Group Theory at the Collège de France from 1973 until his retirement in 2000. Naturalized as a French citizen in 1974, Tits also served as editor-in-chief of Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS from 1980 to 1999, influencing the dissemination of advanced mathematical research. He passed away on December 5, 2021, in Paris at the age of 91. Tits' most enduring legacy lies in his development of the theory of buildings, geometric structures that unify the study of algebraic groups, finite simple groups, and incidence geometries, introduced in the and formalized through concepts like BN-pairs. He classified semisimple algebraic groups using the Tits index and anisotropic kernel, advanced the understanding of affine and spherical buildings (classifying spherical ones of rank at least 3 in 1974, and with Bruhat developing the theory of affine buildings over local fields, culminating in their classification in the 1980s), and proved the influential Tits alternative in 1972, stating that finitely generated linear groups over fields contain either a solvable of finite index or a free of rank at least two. His work extended to algebras, Kac–Moody groups, and the , providing crucial tools for one of mathematics' monumental problems. Among his numerous honors, Tits received the in 1993 for his contributions to algebra and , and in 2008, he shared the with John Griggs Thompson for their profound achievements in group , particularly Tits' geometric vision of groups as objects with deep structural insights. He was also awarded the Prix Décennal de Mathématique by the Belgian government, the Grand Prix of the , and the Medal from the German Mathematical Society, reflecting his global impact over more than five decades of research. His collected works, spanning four volumes, were published by the in 2013.

Biography

Early life and education

Jacques Tits was born on August 12, 1930, in , a municipality on the outskirts of , , to Léon Tits, a and assistant professor at the , and Louisa André. He was the youngest of four children, with siblings Jean, Ghislaine, and . Growing up in an intellectually stimulating environment, Tits displayed prodigious mathematical talent from a young age, influenced by his father's profession. Tits received his secondary education at the Athénée of Uccle, a prestigious secondary school in Brussels. At the remarkably young age of 14, he enrolled at the Université Libre de Bruxelles (Free University of Brussels) to pursue mathematics, completing his bachelor's degree four years later at age 18. His graduate studies, beginning in 1948, were supported by a fellowship from the Belgian Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, which funded him through 1956. In 1950, Tits earned his doctorate from the Free University of Brussels under the supervision of Paul Libois, his professor of geometry. The thesis, titled Généralisation des groupes projectifs basés sur la notion de transitivité, explored generalizations of projective groups grounded in the concept of transitivity. This work highlighted his early fascination with group theory, which would shape his future research.

Academic career

Tits received funding and support from the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique in until 1956. He then served as an assistant at the University of from 1956 to 1962. In 1962, he was promoted to full professor at the same institution, holding the position until 1964. In 1964, Tits accepted a professorship at the , where he remained until 1973. He then moved to France, taking up the Chair of at the in 1973, a position he held until his retirement in 2000. From 1979 to 1999, Tits served as editor-in-chief of Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS. Shortly after this appointment, in 1974, he became a naturalized French citizen and, due to Belgian nationality laws prohibiting dual citizenship at the time, renounced his Belgian citizenship. Following his retirement from the , Tits became the first holder of the Vallée-Poussin Chair at the University of Louvain in 2000.

Personal life and death

Jacques Tits married Marie-Jeanne Dieuaide, a , on September 8, 1956. He maintained a private , with limited public information available about his family beyond this marriage. Following his appointment at the , Tits resided long-term in and became a naturalized French citizen in 1974. Tits died on December 5, 2021, at the age of 91, in the 13th of , .

Mathematical contributions

Algebraic groups and

Jacques Tits played a pivotal role in advancing the theory of algebraic groups, particularly by extending Claude Chevalley's of semisimple algebraic groups over algebraically closed fields to arbitrary fields. Chevalley had demonstrated that such groups are uniquely determined by their root systems, corresponding to Dynkin diagrams. Tits built upon this foundation, showing that semisimple algebraic groups over any field are classified by their root systems together with the action of the on the roots and an anisotropic kernel. This , developed in collaboration with , relies on the concept of the Tits index, which encodes the isomorphism classes of simple algebraic groups via a diagram incorporating Galois automorphisms and centralizers. Their joint work, detailed in the seminal paper "Groupes réductifs," established a comprehensive structure theory for reductive groups, including the decomposition into semisimple and toral parts, and provided tools for analyzing representations and subgroups over non-algebraically closed fields. A key innovation in Tits' approach to reductive groups was the introduction of BN-pairs, also known as Tits systems, which axiomatize the interaction between Borel subgroups (B), their normalizers (N), and the W = N/B. These structures capture the Bruhat decomposition and enumerations essential for understanding the geometry and combinatorics of algebraic groups. In reductive groups over arbitrary fields, BN-pairs facilitate the study of parabolic subgroups and the minimal parabolic structure, enabling generalizations of classical results to settings without a full splitting. Tits' framework, first articulated in his work on groups associated to simple Lie algebras, unifies the algebraic properties of these groups and supports the of their finite subgroups. Tits collaborated extensively with on the Chevalley-Tits construction, a method to generate simple algebraic groups from abstract root data, producing both split and non-split forms uniformly. This construction yields the Chevalley groups over finite fields and extends to algebraic groups over any field by incorporating Galois twists. Additionally, Tits worked with John , Michio , and Ree on exceptional groups and their twisted forms, such as the group 2F4^2F_4, the groups 2B2^2B_2, and the Ree groups 2G2^2G_2 and 2F4^2F_4. These twisted Chevalley groups, introduced in the late 1950s and early 1960s, arise from outer automorphisms of the Dynkin diagrams and were shown by Tits and collaborators to be simple in their finite versions, filling gaps in the of Lie type. For instance, Tits proved the simplicity of the 2F4(2)′^2F_4(2)', a sporadic finite . These contributions have profound applications to the structure of finite simple groups, as representations of algebraic groups over finite fields yield the groups of Lie type central to their . Tits' methods, including the use of BN-pairs, provided essential tools for verifying and embedding properties, influencing the resolution of the classification theorem. His work on pseudo-reductive groups further enriched the theory by identifying classes beyond the reductive ones that still admit BN-pair structures.

Theory of buildings

In the 1950s, Jacques Tits introduced the concept of buildings as a geometric framework to interpret the structure of semisimple groups and related algebraic structures. These buildings are defined as simplicial complexes constructed from the cosets of parabolic subgroups in groups equipped with a BN-pair, where B is a and N is the normalizer of a maximal split , providing a combinatorial model for the underlying these groups. This innovation reversed the traditional approach of deriving geometry from groups, instead using buildings to encode group actions and symmetries in a unified way. Tits' theory distinguishes between buildings of spherical type, which are finite and correspond to groups over finite fields, and those of affine type, which are infinite and arise from groups over local fields. He provided a complete of irreducible spherical of rank at least three, showing that they are tightly linked to the classification of semisimple algebraic groups via their Weyl groups and diagrams. For affine buildings, Tits collaborated with Bruhat to develop the theory, associating them to reductive groups over non-archimedean local fields through valued root data, resulting in structures whose apartments are Euclidean spaces tiled by Coxeter complexes. Their work established that irreducible affine buildings of sufficiently high rank are uniquely determined by their type, mirroring the spherical case but with infinite chambers. The seminal text Buildings of Spherical Type and Finite BN-Pairs, published in 1974 as part of Springer's Lecture Notes in Mathematics, formalized these ideas and presented the classification results, serving as a foundational reference for the field. Through this geometric lens, Tits' buildings unified the study of diverse structures, including algebraic groups over arbitrary fields, Lie groups over the reals or complexes, finite simple groups of Lie type, and later generalizations to Kac-Moody groups, where twin buildings extend the framework to infinite-dimensional settings. This synthesis highlighted how group actions on capture essential algebraic properties, such as simplicity and , across these seemingly disparate areas.

Linear groups and the Tits alternative

Tits' investigations into linear groups focused on the structural properties of finitely generated subgroups of the general linear group GL(n, K) over a field K. His seminal 1972 paper established a profound dichotomy for such groups, resolving a conjecture by Bass and Serre regarding their solvability or non-abelian freeness. This result, known as the Tits alternative, delineates the possible behaviors of these groups in terms of their subgroup lattices and generation properties.90058-0) The Tits alternative asserts that any finitely generated linear group over a field is either virtually solvable—meaning it possesses a solvable subgroup of finite index—or contains a non-abelian free subgroup on two generators. In characteristic zero, this dichotomy is direct: the group either harbors such a free subgroup or is virtually solvable. For fields of positive characteristic, the statement extends with the condition that if no non-abelian free subgroup exists, the group admits a solvable normal subgroup with locally finite quotient, alongside specific module-theoretic constraints on its action. This theorem applies uniformly to subgroups of GL(n, K) for any n and field K, providing a combinatorial criterion for distinguishing solvable-like behavior from exponential growth induced by free subgroups.90058-0) Central to the proof is Tits' introduction of the ping-pong lemma, a combinatorial tool that certifies freeness in group actions on sets or spaces. The lemma posits that if a group generated by elements acts on a set with pairwise disjoint "fundamental domains" (such that each generator maps the domains of the others into its own attracting ), then the generators form a free basis. Tits applied this to semisimple linear transformations, leveraging notions of attracting and repelling hyperplanes in to show that, absent virtual solvability, suitable elements "ping-pong" between these , yielding a free non-abelian . This technique relies on density arguments for connected subgroups and avoids unipotent elements, which are handled separately to ensure the alternative holds.90058-0) The alternative yields key corollaries on subgroup structures, such as the fact that noetherian linear groups (those satisfying the ascending condition on subgroups) are virtually polycyclic. For subgroups of the special linear group SL(n, K), particularly dense ones in semisimple algebraic groups over characteristic zero fields, the guarantees the presence of non-abelian free subgroups, illuminating distortion and properties in these matrix groups. These results have implications for word problems in group theory: virtually solvable linear groups admit solvable word problems via triangularization, while the free subgroup case ensures algorithmic tractability in reduced forms, contributing to broader decidability in linear group computations.90058-0) Related to these ideas is the , denoted ^2F_4(2)', a simple finite group arising in the of groups of type, which exemplifies exceptional structures in linear algebraic groups over finite fields. The alternative's proof techniques have been extended algorithmically to test virtual solvability in computational , with implementations enabling practical verification for matrix groups over rationals or number fields. Briefly, this work connects to Tits' broader algebraic by providing subgroup criteria that refine classifications in semisimple settings.

Other contributions

In the early 1950s, Tits investigated triply transitive groups and their generalizations, providing a characterization of the group of projectivities on the among such groups. His 1950 work, Groupes triplement transitifs et généralisations, explored n-tuply transitive groups and introduced concepts like almost n-tuply transitive actions, laying groundwork for later studies in theory. Tits made significant contributions to the theory of algebras, particularly through their structural connections to groups and exceptional algebras. In 1966, he developed a construction linking alternative algebras, algebras, and exceptional algebras, culminating in the Freudenthal-Tits , which systematically associates algebras to pairs of composition and algebras, yielding all exceptional types. This framework, detailed in Algèbres alternatives, algèbres de Jordan et algèbres de Lie exceptionnelles, provided a unified geometric and algebraic perspective on these structures. During the in the 1960s and 1970s, Tits played a key role by identifying and proving the simplicity of the 2F4(2)′^2F_4(2)', a of index 2 in the Ree group of type F4F_4 over the field with 2 elements, of order 211⋅33⋅52⋅132^{11} \cdot 3^3 \cdot 5^2 \cdot 13. This sporadic-like group, discovered through his analysis of algebraic groups over finite fields, filled a gap in the enumeration of simple groups and influenced the final stages of the classification effort. In his later career, Tits extended the theory of buildings to Kac-Moody groups, introducing twin buildings in the as paired structures that capture the of these infinite-dimensional analogs of semisimple groups. His work, notably Twin buildings and groups of Kac-Moody type, demonstrated how twin buildings provide a combinatorial framework for understanding the symmetry and subgroups of Kac-Moody groups, with brief ties to classical buildings via their spherical and affine limits.

Recognition

Awards and honors

Jacques Tits received numerous prestigious awards throughout his career, recognizing his groundbreaking contributions to and . In 1955, he was awarded the Prix scientifique Interfacultaire Louis Empain by the Free University of for his early doctoral work on algebraic groups. Three years later, in 1958, Tits earned the Prix Adolphe Wettrems from the Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters and Fine Arts of , honoring his emerging research in groups and their structures. Tits' accolades continued with the Prix décennal de mathématiques in 1965, a decennial prize from the Belgian government that celebrates outstanding mathematical achievements over the preceding decade, specifically acknowledging his advancements in the classification of semisimple algebraic groups. In 1976, he received the Grand Prix des Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques from the for his profound influence on the geometry of algebraic groups and related fields. Later honors highlighted Tits' international stature. The 1993 , awarded by the Wolf Foundation, commended his pioneering work on the structure of algebraic groups and finite simple groups, including the introduction of as geometric tools for group classification. In 1993, he was appointed Commandeur des Palmes académiques. In 1996, he was bestowed the Cantor Medal by the German Mathematical Society for his exceptional contributions to mathematics, particularly in and . In 1995, Tits received the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, and in 2001, he was appointed Officer of the National Order of Merit. Tits' most renowned recognition came in 2008 with the , shared with John Griggs Thompson and presented by the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, for their transformative roles in modern through innovative algebraic and geometric insights.

Academic memberships and roles

Jacques Tits was elected a member of the in 1979. In 1988, he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and a founding member of the . He was also elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in 1988. Other notable memberships included the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina in 1977, the Royal Academy of Belgium as a foreign associate in 1991, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences as a foreign honorary member in 1992, the US as a foreign associate in 1992, and honorary membership in the London Mathematical Society in 1993. Tits played significant roles in mathematical publishing and oversight. He served as editor-in-chief of Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS from 1980 to 1999, guiding the journal's direction during a period of influential contributions to and . Additionally, he was a member of the reading committee for the Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. In leadership capacities within international mathematical organizations, Tits contributed to the selection of recipients as a member of the 1978 awarding committee. From 1985 onward, he served on the international jury for the Balzan Prizes, evaluating nominations in and related fields. He also held advisory positions in funding bodies, including roles with the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique in .

Publications and legacy

Selected publications

Jacques Tits produced a prolific body of work in and , with over 180 publications spanning more than five decades. His early contributions focused on generalizations of classical group structures, while later works advanced the of and linear groups. The following selection highlights seminal papers and volumes that exemplify his foundational results.
  • Généralisations des groupes projectifs (1949, two parts): This pair of articles explores extensions of projective groups beyond traditional fields, introducing abstract generalizations based on properties. Published in Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l'Académie Royale de Belgique (5e série), 35: 197–208 and 756–773.
  • Groupes triplement transitifs et généralisations (1950): In this short note, Tits examines triply transitive groups and proposes broader generalizations of multiple transitivity in groups. Published in Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l'Académie Royale de Belgique (5e série), 36: 207–208.
  • Généralisation des groupes projectifs basés sur la notion de transitivité (1950): Tits' doctoral thesis develops a framework for generalizing projective groups through the lens of transitivity properties, laying groundwork for abstract group actions. Submitted to Université Libre de Bruxelles.
  • Free subgroups in linear groups (1972): This paper establishes the Tits alternative, proving that finitely generated linear groups over fields either contain a non-abelian free subgroup or are virtually solvable. Published in Journal of Algebra, 20(2): 250–270. DOI: 10.1016/0021-8693(72)90058-0
  • Buildings of spherical type and finite BN-pairs (1974): Tits introduces the concept of buildings of spherical type associated to groups with BN-pairs, providing a geometric framework for finite reflection groups and Chevalley groups. Published as Lecture Notes in , vol. 386, Springer-Verlag. DOI: 10.1007/BFb0057391.
  • Œuvres – Collected Works (2013, four volumes): Edited by Francis Buekenhout, this compilation gathers nearly all of Tits' published papers from 1949 to 2006, along with some unpublished notes, organized thematically to showcase his evolution in . Published by . ISBN: 978-3-03719-126-2.

Influence and students

Jacques Tits mentored a significant number of doctoral students during his academic career, with records indicating 18 direct PhD advisees across institutions including the and the . A prominent example is Francis Buekenhout, who earned his doctorate in 1965 under Tits' supervision at the , later advancing research in inspired by Tits' ideas on diagram geometries. Documentation on Tits' later-career students remains limited, reflecting the challenges in tracing mentorship in his post-retirement period after 2000. Tits' innovations exerted a profound influence on modern and by reimagining algebraic groups through geometric lenses, such as his theory of buildings, which unified structures across semisimple groups and Lie types. These buildings have extended into applications, notably in algorithmic designs for computational group theory, where quotients of Bruhat-Tits buildings enable efficient handling of arithmetic subgroups in software for symbolic computation. His , delineating solvable versus free subgroups in linear groups, has fundamentally shaped subgroup theory in these fields. Tits contributed crucially to the by devising buildings as tools to characterize and identify finite groups of Lie type, aiding the monumental effort that resolved the classification in the . He further extended these concepts to infinite groups, pioneering the functorial construction of Kac-Moody groups over arbitrary commutative rings, which broadened applications in and beyond. Post-2000 interdisciplinary impacts, such as in for algorithms, show emerging but underexplored connections to his foundational work. Following his death on December 5, 2021, at age 91, Tits received widespread posthumous recognition from the mathematical community. The (IHÉS) issued a honoring his tenure as of Publications mathématiques de l'IHÉS from 1980 to 1999 and his enduring geometric insights. The published an obituary emphasizing his visionary role in group theory, while the Abel Prize committee expressed condolences, affirming his legacy's permanence in . In December 2023, the hosted a three-day in his honor.

References

  1. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Tits/
  2. https://www.college-de-france.fr/en/chair/jacques-tits-group-theory-statutory-chair/biography
  3. https://www.ams.org/notices/202301/rnoti-p77.pdf
  4. https://abelprize.no/article/2023/jacques-tits-abel-prize-laureate-dies-91
  5. https://euromathsoc.org/news/jacques-tits-1930---2021-46
  6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0021869372900580
  7. https://genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=22900
  8. https://www.ihes.fr/en/tribute-jacques-tits/
  9. https://abelprize.no/sites/default/files/2021-04/Biography_Jacques_Tits_en_Thompson_Tits_2008.pdf
  10. https://www.geni.com/people/Jacques-Tits/6000000000521368276
  11. https://www.numdam.org/item/PMIHES_1965__27__55_0/
  12. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/BFb0070765
  13. https://assets.cambridge.org/97805212/79031/excerpt/9780521279031_excerpt.pdf
  14. https://aimath.org/WWN/buildings/rousseau.pdf
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0021869323002612
  16. https://www.uni-muenster.de/AGKramer/linuspub/40.pdf
  17. https://www.math.auckland.ac.nz/~obrien/research/Tits.pdf
  18. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/groups-combinatorics-and-geometry/twin-buildings-and-groups-of-kacmoody-type/881642C9BEFFFB394CB02B0B26C85C6A
  19. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-39449-2_9
  20. https://abelprize.no/abel-prize-laureates/2008
  21. https://msp.org/iig/2018/16-1/iig-v16-n1-p33-s.pdf
  22. https://projecteuclid.org/journals/innovations-in-incidence-geometry-algebraic-topological-and-combinatorial/volume-16/issue-1/Groupes-triplement-transitifs-et-g%25C3%25A9n%25C3%25A9ralisations/10.2140/iig.2018.16.9.full
  23. https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=22900
  24. https://www.math.ucla.edu/~pak/papers/Beals.pdf
  25. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/BFb0084591
  26. https://www.college-de-france.fr/en/agenda/symposium/symposium-to-honor-the-memory-of-jacques-tits
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