Hubbry Logo
KogiidaeKogiidaeMain
Open search
Kogiidae
Community hub
Kogiidae
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Kogiidae
Kogiidae
Kogiidae
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Kogiidae
Temporal range: Miocene – Recent
↓
[1]
Dwarf sperm whale, Kogia sima
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Superfamily: Physeteroidea
Family: Kogiidae
Gill, 1871
Genera

See text

Kogiidae is a family comprising at least two extant species of Cetacea, the pygmy (Kogia breviceps) and dwarf (K. sima) sperm whales. As their common names suggest, they somewhat resemble sperm whales, with squared heads and small lower jaws, but are much smaller, with much shorter skulls and more notable dorsal fins than sperm whales.[2] Kogiids are also characterized by a "false gill slit" behind their eyes.[3]

A number of extinct genera have been named.[4]

Taxonomy

[edit]

There is some amount of uncertainty over if Kogiidae belongs in the sperm whale family. Research still suggests a close relationship between Kogiidae and sperm whales using mitochondrial DNA, which supports Kogiidae as part of the sperm whale family.[5] This relationship is supported by similarities of the anatomical structures in the head, responsible for sound production, in particular the presence of a spermaceti organ.[6] Other phylogenetic research raises further questions over a potential relationship between kogiids and Ziphiidae.[5] Other questions exist regarding the high relatedness in mitochondrial DNA between Platanista and kogiids.[7] Fossil evidence is limited for this family, which potentially limits an understanding of their relationship to other extant cetaceans.[8]

Researchers have proposed that K. sima may represent at least two genetically unique species, and further genetic research is needed to determine the real number of extant species of Kogiidae.[9]

A comparison of an extinct monodont, Denebola brachycephala (top), and an extinct kogiid, Praekogia cedrosensis (bottom), both from the Late Miocene.

ORDER ARTIODACTYLA

Biology

[edit]

Kogiid skulls are characterized by a very short rostrum, the smallest among extant cetaceans, as well as high levels of asymmetry, which is expected among odontocetes.[8][12] Kogiid skulls have the most blunt mandible among extant cetaceans as well. Extant kogiidae also show relatively high encephalization quotient, the ratio between observed brain size and expected brain size. The pygmy sperm whale has an EQ of 1.78, while the dwarf sperm whale's EQ is 1.63.[8] Kogiidae do possess spermaceti in their head like sperm whales.[13] However, kogiid spermaceti is unique as the whales are able to control its temperature.[14] Kogiidae are also homodonts, showing teeth all of the same size and shape.[15]

Kogiidae possess a unique system of organs to produce sound, including a bagpipe-like structure to produce sound and an amplifying horn.[14]

Kogiidae have a modified colon which works as an "ink sac", storing liquid red feces.[16] They are able to release over three gallons of this fecal "ink" to confuse or discourage predators.[17]

Ecology

[edit]

Range

[edit]

Kogiidae are believed to be cosmopolitan species, inhabiting all oceans except polar waters, remaining between the 50° latitude lines.[16]

Two fossilized species of Kogia sp. were shown to exhibit sympatry, similar to the two modern members of Kogia, which researchers suggested shows that this behavior has been part of Kogiidae for at least 3 million years.[18]

Behavior and feeding

[edit]

Extant kogiids travel in small groups and rarely surface, potentially to avoid predators like orcas.[19]

Kogiidae are deep diving whales, believed to dive up to depths of 500 m.[8] Kogiids feed using a technique known as suction feeding, and their diet primarily consists of squid.[20][21] Pygmy sperm whales are able to eat larger prey than dwarf sperm whales, although their diet as a whole is relatively similar.[21] They have also been observed using echolocation to find their prey, and their hearing places them in the "Very High Frequency" group of cetaceans that can hear well above 100 kHz.[22][23]

Human threats

[edit]

Most observations of Kogia have come from individuals tangled in fishing line or stranded individuals.[8] There is a commercial fishery for K. breviceps in parts of southeast Asia and the Lesser Antilles.[24] Both species of extant Kogia have also been observed stranded with plastics blocking their intestines.[17][24]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kogiidae

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Kogiidae is a family of toothed whales (Odontoceti) within the superfamily , comprising two extant species: the (Kogia breviceps) and the (Kogia sima). These small cetaceans, reaching maximum lengths of about 3.5 meters for the pygmy and 2.7 meters for the dwarf, exhibit a distinctive "shark-like" appearance with a squared-off head, small , and a lower tooth row that is often hidden by the upper jaw. Unlike their larger relative, the (Physeter macrocephalus), members of Kogiidae possess well-defined dorsal fins and are adapted for in pelagic environments. Kogiidae species are distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate waters, primarily inhabiting deep offshore regions where they are rarely observed at the surface due to their elusive and preference for solitary or small-group living. Their diet consists mainly of cephalopods such as and octopuses, supplemented by and crustaceans, which they capture using suction feeding and echolocation facilitated by a similar to that of sperm whales. When disturbed, they release a cloud of reddish-brown ink-like substance from the anus, creating a that aids in their identification but contributes to their elusive nature. Conservation assessments for both species classify them as Data Deficient by the IUCN Red List (as of 2020), owing to limited data on population sizes, trends, and threats such as bycatch in fisheries, marine pollution, and noise disturbance. Fossil records indicate that Kogiidae has a rich evolutionary history dating back to the Miocene epoch, with several extinct genera suggesting greater diversity in the past. Ongoing research focuses on acoustic monitoring and strandings to better understand their ecology and mitigate potential anthropogenic impacts.

Description

Physical characteristics

Members of the family Kogiidae exhibit compact, robust body forms adapted to deep-water lifestyles. The (Kogia breviceps) attains adult lengths of 2.6–3.4 m and weights up to 400 kg, while the (Kogia sima) is notably smaller, reaching 1.8–2.7 m in length and up to 270 kg in weight. In both species, females are slightly larger than males, reflecting reversed in the pygmy sperm whale and minimal size differences in the dwarf sperm whale. Externally, kogiids possess a squat, cylindrical body that tapers sharply toward the , with a small , triangular in the pygmy (located far posteriorly) and falcate in the dwarf (near the midpoint of the back). The head is square and blocky, comprising about one-third of the body length, featuring a short, blunt rostrum without a pronounced and a small, underslung positioned low on the head. A characteristic white, crescent-shaped "false " marking extends posteriorly from behind each eye, aiding in identification. Coloration is countershaded, with dark gray to brownish-gray tones on the dorsal surface and sides, transitioning to lighter gray or white undersides that may exhibit pinkish hues in some individuals; the skin often appears wrinkled, particularly in the pygmy sperm whale. The two species differ subtly in build and proportions, with the displaying a thicker, more robust body and heavier skull relative to its slimmer, more streamlined counterpart, the , which has a taller, falcate positioned nearer the midpoint of the back, while the pygmy has a smaller, more triangular located further posteriorly. These morphological distinctions, combined with the presence of grooves in the (absent in the pygmy), facilitate post-stranding identification despite challenges at sea.

Sensory and physiological adaptations

Members of the Kogiidae family possess a , an oil-filled structure located in the head that facilitates both echolocation and control. This organ, composed primarily of wax esters, allows for adjustments in oil temperature and density, enabling the to focus sound waves for precise echolocation and maintain during deep dives by altering the organ's specific gravity relative to . Sound production in kogiids is enabled by asymmetric nasal passages, with the right naris featuring a vocal chamber and phonic lips that generate high-frequency clicks exceeding 100 kHz, primarily for echolocation. These narrow-band high-frequency clicks, peaking around 125 kHz, are produced pneumatically through the movement of air across the phonic lips, controlled by specialized that modulate and directionality, distinguishing kogiids from other odontocetes with broader ranges. The feeding apparatus includes 14–26 small, homodont teeth confined to the lower jaw, which function primarily for grasping soft-bodied prey such as rather than chewing, complementing suction-feeding mechanics. A unique physiological adaptation is the modified colon, often termed an "ink sac," which stores a dark, fecal rich in red pigments derived from a squid-heavy diet; this can be expelled in volumes exceeding 3 gallons as a defensive mechanism to create a visual smokescreen against predators. Kogiids exhibit relatively high brain-to-body size ratios, with encephalization quotients (EQ) of approximately 1.63 for Kogia sima and 1.78 for Kogia breviceps, suggesting advanced cognitive capabilities such as complex social behaviors and problem-solving relative to other cetaceans of similar size.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Classification

Kogiidae is a family of cetaceans placed within the superfamily and the order Cetartiodactyla, with its closest living relatives being the sperm whales of the genus in the family Physeteridae. This placement reflects the shared odontocete characteristics, including a specialized echolocation system and deep-diving adaptations, that distinguish Physeteroidea from other cetacean lineages. The family comprises two recognized extant species in the genus : the (Kogia breviceps de Blainville, 1838), the , and the (Kogia sima Owen, 1866). breviceps typically reaches lengths of 2.7–3.4 m, while K. sima is smaller at 2.4–2.7 m. Genetic analyses of have revealed significant variation within K. sima, suggesting the presence of one or more cryptic species, potentially warranting further taxonomic revision. Historically, Kogia species were classified within the family , but established the subfamily Kogiinae in 1871 based on morphological differences. Modern classifications recognize as a distinct . Earlier debates proposed affinities with Ziphiidae (beaked whales) or even river dolphins due to superficial cranial similarities, but molecular phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA have conclusively resolved within as the to . Diagnostic traits for classifying Kogiidae include their small body size relative to other physeteroids, a square-shaped head with a prominent , and a single pair of external nares positioned asymmetrically forward on the head. These features, combined with dental morphology such as reduced teeth and a short rostrum, differentiate them from other odontocetes.

Fossil record

The fossil record of Kogiidae spans the Neogene period, from the middle Miocene (approximately 13 to 11 million years ago) to the late Pliocene (around 3 million years ago), with no documented Holocene fossils, though the family persists to the present through its extant members. The earliest known kogiid remains date to the middle Miocene from deposits in Italy assigned to an undetermined species of Kogia, indicate an initial diversification in the Northern Hemisphere during a time of expanding marine habitats. Subsequent fossils document a peak in diversity during the late Miocene, followed by a decline in the Pliocene, reflecting broader patterns in physeteroid evolution amid changing oceanographic conditions. Recent discoveries, such as a new late Miocene kogiid from Peru, further highlight the family's past diversity in the Americas. Several extinct genera highlight the family's past diversity, including Praekogia from late Miocene strata in Baja California, Mexico; Scaphokogia from late Miocene sites in Peru; Nanokogia from late Miocene formations in Panama; Aprixokogia from early Pliocene deposits in North Carolina, USA; and Pliokogia from early Pliocene mudstones in northern Italy. Other notable taxa include Kogiopsis, known from middle Miocene to Pliocene localities in North America and Japan, characterized by elongated teeth up to 12.7 cm long, and Kogia pusilla from late Pliocene sediments in Italy, which exhibits features transitional to modern forms. These genera, often represented by isolated skulls, lower jaws, teeth, and ear bones (particularly involucra of the periotic), have been recovered primarily from Neogene marine deposits in the Northern Hemisphere, with notable exceptions in South America suggesting a wider paleo-distribution during the Miocene. Key fossil discoveries underscore the fragmentary but informative nature of the record, such as the partial cranium of Nanokogia isthmia from the ~7.5-million-year-old Chagres Formation in Panama, which preserves details of the supracranial basin, and the nearly complete skull of Pliokogia apenninica from Zanclean-age (early Pliocene) Italian sediments, revealing a long, flattened rostrum adapted for suction feeding. Ear bones, more abundant than cranial material, provide evidence of sympatric occurrence with ancestors of modern Kogia species for approximately 3 million years in the Pliocene Mediterranean and Atlantic margins, implying ecological overlap before the family's recent depauperization. These finds, often from coastal and deep-water facies, indicate that ancient kogiids inhabited similar neritic and pelagic environments as their living relatives. Evolutionary trends within Kogiidae reveal a progression toward from larger physeteroid ancestors, with body sizes stabilizing at 2–4 meters in most taxa, contrasting with the gigantic forms of contemporaneous sperm whales like . Specialized head structures, including the and associated nasal complexes for echolocation and buoyancy control, appear in early forms and undergo iterative reduction in later lineages, predating refinements seen in extant . This miniaturization and cranial specialization likely facilitated niche partitioning, enabling kogiids to exploit deep-diving, squid-focused diets in a competitive odontocete assemblage, though the sparse record limits full resolution of these transitions.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Kogiidae, the family comprising the (Kogia breviceps) and (Kogia sima), exhibits a in temperate and tropical waters across all major oceans, primarily between approximately 50°N and 50°S latitudes, with an absence from polar regions. This range encompasses the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, where sightings and strandings confirm their presence in both nearshore and offshore environments worldwide. The pygmy sperm whale (K. breviceps) displays a more pelagic and widespread distribution, occurring throughout the Atlantic, , and eastern Pacific Oceans, often beyond the continental shelf. In contrast, the dwarf sperm whale (K. sima) tends toward more coastal habitats, with concentrations in the region and scattered records in the Atlantic, including the western North Atlantic from to the and , as well as the eastern Pacific from to . Strandings further document K. sima occurrences in the western Pacific from to and . Kogiids are characterized by rare sightings due to their elusive behavior, leading to limited abundance estimates; global population totals remain unknown. Regional surveys provide some insight into scale: as of 2023, the best estimate for K. sima off is 17,519 (CV=0.32), while combined estimates for both species in the western North Atlantic are 9,474 (CV=0.36). Their ranges appear stable historically, with no major shifts noted, though stranding records, such as frequent events along the coast, continue to inform distribution patterns.

Habitat preferences

Kogiids primarily inhabit deep offshore waters exceeding 200 meters in depth, where they conduct dives routinely surpassing 500 meters to access mesopelagic prey layers, supported by adaptations such as a robust body form and specialized mechanisms detailed in physiological studies. They show a strong preference for warm temperate to tropical marine environments, with sea surface temperatures typically ranging from 15°C to 30°C, avoiding colder polar regions and hypersaline or brackish coastal areas unsuitable for their deep-diving lifestyle. These whales are frequently associated with productive oceanographic features, including continental shelves, slopes, and zones that enhance prey availability through nutrient-rich currents. For instance, sightings and strandings indicate concentrations near shelf breaks where bathymetric gradients promote opportunities in depths of 400–1,000 meters. The dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) exhibits a more neritic distribution, often occurring closer to coastal slopes and in shallower offshore areas compared to the predominantly pelagic Kogia breviceps, which favors more open oceanic habitats beyond the immediate shelf. Seasonal patterns suggest kogiids are largely resident in their preferred ranges, with limited long-distance migrations, though some evidence points to shifts toward warmer equatorial waters during breeding periods in certain populations. In regions like , K. sima groups occupy deeper s (>1,000 m) in summer and transition to slope waters (200–1,000 m) in winter, potentially tracking prey distributions influenced by seasonal . Both species coexist sympatrically in overlapping and Atlantic regions without clear evidence of habitat niche partitioning, sharing similar deep-water preferences despite subtle differences in coastal affinity.

Behavior and ecology

Social behavior

Kogiids, including the (Kogia breviceps) and (Kogia sima), exhibit largely solitary social structures, with individuals typically observed alone or in small pods of 1–6 animals for K. breviceps and 1–8 for K. sima, though median group sizes are often around 2–3. Mother-calf pairs are common, particularly for females with young, while groups of immatures or mixed ages and sexes occur sporadically; larger aggregations exceeding 10 individuals are rare and not indicative of stable herds. Recent photo-identification studies, including those using unmanned aerial systems in Hawaiian waters as of 2021, have revealed high site fidelity with over 50% of individuals resighted and evidence of social clustering, where more than 40% of identified were linked within the same , suggesting potential long-term associations beyond familial pairs, though stable herds remain unconfirmed. Low sighting rates reflect their cryptic, evasive nature. Communication among kogiids relies primarily on high-frequency, narrow-band clicks peaking at 120–130 kHz, which serve both echolocation and potential social signaling functions. These odontocetes produce burst-pulse variants of clicks with shorter interclick intervals (around 37 ms), possibly for non-echolocation purposes such as intra-group coordination, though tonal whistles are absent. Their vocalizations are not highly elaborate, aligning with their solitary tendencies and deep-water habits that limit surface interactions. Daily activity patterns in kogiids are diurnal, featuring extended periods of surface resting where individuals "log" motionless with heads exposed and tails submerged, often for several minutes before slow rolls or dives. When approached by vessels or predators, they display evasive behaviors, including rapid dives or release of a dark fecal "ink" cloud from a specialized intestinal sac to obscure their escape. Interspecific interactions are infrequent, with kogiids rarely associating with other cetaceans despite occasional co-occurrences in shared habitats; in over 90 documented sightings off , no such affiliations were observed. Intra-species aggression is minimal, limited to potential in small groups, underscoring their generally non-confrontational .

Feeding and diet

Members of the Kogiidae family, including the (Kogia breviceps) and (Kogia sima), primarily consume cephalopods, which constitute approximately 90% of their diet by number and mass in examined stomach contents. These deep-sea cephalopods include species from families such as Histioteuthidae (e.g., Histioteuthis bonnellii) and (e.g., Taonius pavo), reflecting a preference for mesopelagic and bathypelagic prey. Small from at least 16 families and crustaceans (e.g., and crabs from genera like Polybius) make up the remainder, typically less than 10% by abundance and mass. Kogiids employ suction feeding as their primary foraging method, facilitated by broad basihyals, thyrohyals, and throat grooves that enable rapid hyoid depression to generate negative pressure for prey capture. This technique is particularly suited to soft-bodied cephalopods in low-light environments, where echolocation aids in prey detection during deep dives inferred to reach up to 1,000 m based on prey depth distributions. typically occurs between 600 and 1,200 m, targeting non-migratory species in the . Daily food intake is estimated at 3–5% of body weight, similar to other small odontocetes, to meet energetic demands of deep diving. Seasonal variations in diet composition occur, linked to migrations of prey like cranchiid squids, which may influence foraging depth and prey availability. Digestive adaptations include a multi-chambered that efficiently processes chitinous beaks, with undigested lower beaks accumulating in the cardiac chamber for long-term retention. This accumulation allows researchers to reconstruct diet history from stranded specimens, as beaks from up to 38 species have been identified in single .

Reproduction and life history

Mating and breeding

The of kogiids is likely polygynous, with males roving among groups of females in search of receptive individuals. Competition among males may involve vocalizations, similar to those produced by their relative, the , though direct observations in kogiids are lacking. Breeding in kogiids peaks during summer months in temperate zones, with conception typically occurring from April to September in southern African waters for Kogia breviceps. Gestation lasts 9 to 11 months in K. breviceps, resulting in the birth of a single calf, while data for K. sima indicate a duration of 11 to 12 months. Calves are born at around 1.2 m in length for K. breviceps and ~1.0 m for K. sima, with K. breviceps exhibiting a unique head-first birthing position among cetaceans. In the , calving peaks from to , while in the , it occurs between December and . Sexual maturity in kogiids is reached at lengths of ~2.0 to 2.6 m and ages of approximately 2.5 to 5 years, with males attaining maturity at similar or slightly earlier ages than females in both species; for K. sima, females mature at ~215 cm and ~5 years, males at ~197 cm and 2.55–3 years, while for K. breviceps, females mature at ~2.62 m and 5 years, males at 2.41–2.42 m and 2.5–5 years. Breeding grounds for kogiids are inferred to be in warmer coastal waters, where sightings and strandings indicate preferences for tropical and subtropical regions with higher water temperatures. Low calving rates, with an ovulation rate of about 0.9 per year in K. breviceps and 0.7 per year in K. sima, reflect reproduction close to annual but limited by data scarcity.

Growth and development

Kogiid calves are born at lengths of approximately 1.2 m for Kogia breviceps and 1.0 m for Kogia sima, with initial neonatal traits adapted for rapid postnatal development in pelagic environments. Calves nurse for about 1 year, consuming that is rich in , particularly palmitic and oleic acids, though it contains less fat overall and more compared to other cetacean milks. This lipid-rich diet supports accelerated early growth, enabling calves to reach roughly 50% of adult body length within the first year through high-energy intake and minimal weaning dependence. Skeletal analyses reveal faster growth rates in the first 5 years, with rostrum elongation and epiphyseal fusion occurring progressively as calves transition to independent foraging. The juvenile phase begins around at 1 year, when calves shift to a diet of small cephalopods and , paralleling adult feeding patterns but at reduced scales. Growth continues steadily, with K. breviceps attaining physical maturity at about 3.0 m and K. sima at 2.4–2.6 m, marked by the fusion of vertebral epiphyses around 13–16 years. is reached at ~5 years for females of both species, while males reach at ~2.55–3 years in K. sima and 2.5–5 years in K. breviceps. This ontogenetic progression reflects , with females generally outliving and outgrowing males in K. breviceps (asymptotic lengths ~3.06 m females vs. ~2.86 m males), though K. sima shows males slightly larger (~2.64 m vs. ~2.49 m). Longevity in kogiids is estimated at up to 23 years for K. breviceps and 17–22 years overall for K. sima, with males likely surviving 15–20 years based on observed patterns in growth layer groups (GLGs). Aging is determined through counts of GLGs in dentine or tympanic bone, where each layer corresponds to , allowing precise assessment of age at up to 23 GLGs in females. High calf mortality, primarily from predation by sharks and killer whales, underscores the vulnerability of early life stages, as evidenced by frequent strandings of cow-calf pairs and predation scars on juveniles.

Conservation

Threats

Kogiid whales face multiple anthropogenic and natural threats that impact their populations, though data deficiencies limit comprehensive assessments. in gear represents a primary concern, with frequent entanglements in gillnets and longlines reported globally, particularly in fisheries where these deep-diving species interact with mid-water and deep-sea operations. Strandings of kogiids are often linked to fishing gear interactions, exacerbating mortality rates in regions with intensive artisanal and industrial fisheries. Pollution poses another significant risk, including the ingestion of marine plastics that mimic the squid beaks forming a major component of their diet, leading to intestinal blockages and starvation. Chemical contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and bioaccumulate in their , potentially affecting reproductive health and immune function. Direct exploitation of kogiids occurred historically in certain regions, including commercial hunts in (e.g., and ) and the (e.g., St. Vincent) for meat and oil, but such activities have largely ceased. indirectly threatens kogiids through shifts in prey distribution due to ocean warming and acidification, altering squid populations in their deep-water habitats. Additionally, increasing shipping traffic generates underwater noise that disrupts their echolocation-based and communication. Natural threats include predation by and orcas, which target kogiids in oceanic habitats; however, their unique ability to release a dark, ink-like substance from the intestines serves as a defensive mechanism to deter or confuse attackers. Their deep-diving heightens to certain fishing gears, while slow reproductive rates may amplify the effects of these threats on population recovery.

Status and protection

The two extant species of Kogiidae, the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) and the dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima), are both classified as Least Concern on the as of the 2025-2 version (October 2025). This update from previous assessments reflects ongoing research, though challenges in monitoring these deep-diving, oceanic persist. Population trends remain largely unknown, but available stranding and sighting suggest stability without evidence of decline, though the species' K-selected life history—characterized by slow growth, late maturity, and low reproductive rates—confers low resilience to potential perturbations. Kogiids receive legal protection under the U.S. of 1972, which prohibits take, , and importation of marine mammals, including all within U.S. waters. Internationally, both are listed on Appendix II of the (CITES), regulating trade to avoid impacts on wild populations, and they benefit from regional whaling bans under the , as they are not commercially targeted but protected as small cetaceans. Conservation efforts focus on response and , including NOAA Fisheries' Health and Stranding Response Program, which coordinates volunteer networks across U.S. coastal states to handle strandings—averaging about 40 events annually—and conducts necropsies to inform health assessments. Additional measures include reduction through gear modifications and passive acoustic monitoring to track distributions and avoid interactions in fisheries. gaps persist in estimating abundance, genetic structure, and baseline health, necessitating expanded surveys and genetic studies to better evaluate long-term viability.

References

  1. https://marinemammalscience.org/facts/kogia-breviceps/
  2. https://www.sealifebase.ca/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=1178
  3. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pygmy-sperm-whale
  4. https://www.depts.ttu.edu/nsrl/mammals-of-texas-online-edition/Accounts_Cetacea/Kogia_sima.php
  5. https://www.acsonline.org/pygmy-sperm-whale
  6. https://www.marinemammals.in/mmi/identification-guide/character-matrix-5/pygmy-sperm-whale/
  7. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11047/50358334
  8. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11048/50359330
  9. http://websci.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i1545-1410-819-1-1.pdf
  10. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/dwarf-sperm-whale
  11. https://cascadiaresearch.org/files/Ploen_Baird_Kogia_sima.pdf
  12. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40975597/
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275664472_Morphology_of_the_Nasal_Apparatus_in_Pygmy_Kogia_Breviceps_and_Dwarf_K_Sima_Sperm_Whales
  14. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/6/jeb240689/237928/Echolocation-click-parameters-and-biosonar
  15. https://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/26-01_Marten.pdf
  16. https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/819.1/2600863
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228672273_Kogia_Breviceps_Cetacea_Kogiidae
  18. https://www.livescience.com/animals/whales/dwarf-sperm-whale-the-pint-size-whales-that-gush-gallons-of-intestinal-fluid-when-surprised
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230339578_Behavioral_observations_of_the_dwarf_sperm_whale_Kogia_simus
  20. https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.a.20128
  21. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123909
  22. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC34678/
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Donald_Mcalpine3/publication/338956221_Family_Kogiidae_Pygmy_Sperm_Whales/links/5e34bd4c299bf1cdb9027064/Family-Kogiidae-Pygmy-Sperm-Whales.pdf
  24. https://www.marinespecies.org/cetacea/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=136982
  25. https://doi.org/10.1002/spp2.1318
  26. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123909
  27. https://doi.org/10.4202/app.00578.2018
  28. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11290333/
  29. https://marinemammalscience.org/facts/kogia-sima/
  30. https://www.ccs-ngo.com/about-cetaceans/species/kogia-sima
  31. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Kogia_sima/
  32. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11047/124535449
  33. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11048/15699065
  34. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/s3/2024-12/Pacific_SARs_Final_2023.pdf
  35. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/s3/2024-12/2023-sar-dwarf-sperm-whale-wna.pdf
  36. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1152&context=occ_stuetd
  37. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/mms.12064
  38. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653523027261
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288200032_Pygmy_and_Dwarf_Sperm_Whales_Kogia_breviceps_and_K_sima
  40. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354110310_Site_fidelity_spatial_use_and_behavior_of_dwarf_sperm_whales_in_Hawaiian_waters_using_small-boat_surveys_photo-identification_and_unmanned_aerial_systems_to_study_a_difficult-to-study_species
  41. https://www.marinebio.org/species/pygmy-sperm-whales/kogia-breviceps/
  42. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323347900_Clicks_of_dwarf_sperm_whales_Kogia_sima
  43. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/context/usdeptcommercepub/article/1045/viewcontent/Walker_MMS_2009_Diet_pygmy_NOAA.pdf
  44. https://www.vin.com/apputil/project/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11257&meta=Generic&id=3864704
  45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226746921_The_diet_of_pygmy_sperm_whales_Kogia_breviceps_stranded_in_New_Zealand_Implications_for_conservation
  46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227667674_Pygmy_sperm_whales_Kogia_breviceps_in_the_Northeast_Atlantic_New_information_on_stomach_contents_and_strandings
  47. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/34482733_The_status_and_natural_history_of_pygmy_Kogia_breviceps_and_dwarf_K_sima_sperm_whales_off_Southern_Africa
  48. https://www.azoreswhalewatch.com/educational/speciescatalogue/mammals/dwarf-sperm-whale
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0300962978900518
  50. https://www.vin.com/apputil/project/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11257&id=3864704
  51. https://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/30-2_Manire.pdf
  52. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/48550/noaa_48550_DS1.pdf
  53. https://speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/02087/
  54. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228546675_Incidental_catch_of_marine_mammals_in_the_southwest_Indian_Ocean_a_preliminary_review
  55. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X1930743X
  56. https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/dam-migration/ao1999whpy-wn-508.pdf
  57. https://iucn-csg.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/1994-Action-Plan.pdf
  58. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9cfea2b0-49a4-450c-8930-4c234460fa36/content
  59. https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/pygmy-sperm-whale/
  60. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01336.x
  61. https://iucn-csg.org/red-list-status-of-cetaceans/
  62. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pygmy-sperm-whale/conservation-management
  63. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/dwarf-sperm-whale/conservation-management
  64. https://cites.org/eng/taxonomy/term/737
  65. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/marine-life-distress/marine-mammal-health-and-stranding-response-program
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.