Like-Minded Developing Countries

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) is a coalition of developing nations that operates as a negotiating bloc in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), prioritizing the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) to differentiate obligations based on historical emissions and economic development levels.^[1][2] Emerging formally around 2007 amid intensifying UNFCCC talks, the LMDC coordinates stances among members to demand that developed countries shoulder primary responsibility for mitigation, provide substantial climate finance, and facilitate technology transfers, thereby safeguarding the developmental priorities of nations with limited contributions to cumulative global warming.^[1][3] The group encompasses over 20 countries, including major economies such as China, India, and Indonesia, alongside oil-exporting states like Saudi Arabia and Egypt, collectively accounting for more than half of the global population and a majority of the world's poor.^[4][5] In negotiations, LMDC interventions have reinforced UNFCCC commitments to equity, influencing outcomes like the Paris Agreement by opposing dilutions of CBDR that could impose premature constraints on industrial growth in low-emission-per-capita economies.^[6][7] Critics, often from developed-country perspectives, have labeled the bloc obstructive to universal emission caps, yet empirical assessments of per-country emissions underscore the causal rationale for differentiated approaches, as developing LMDC members emit far less historically than industrialized nations.^[8][9][10]

Formation and History

Origins and Early Alignments

The origins of alignments among what would become the Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) trace to the UNFCCC negotiations in the mid-2000s, where developing nations began coordinating positions to uphold the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) and to emphasize the historical emissions of industrialized countries as the primary cause of climate change.^[1] These efforts stemmed from the Group of 77 (G77) plus China framework, but ad hoc subgroups formed to counter proposals that aimed to impose mitigation obligations on non-Annex I parties, particularly following the Marrakesh Accords in 2001 and subsequent talks on post-Kyoto commitments.^[1] By 2007, around the time of COP13 in Bali, these like-minded developing countries solidified their stance in response to the Bali Action Plan, which sought long-term cooperative action while maintaining differentiation between developed and developing nations.^[1] Early alignments featured cooperation between emerging economies like China and India—rapidly industrializing with significant coal dependencies—and resource-exporting states such as Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and Iran, whose economies relied on fossil fuel revenues and who viewed stringent global mitigation regimes as threats to sovereignty and development rights.^[11] This grouping rejected unilateral measures by developed nations and advocated for technology transfer and finance as prerequisites for any developing country actions.^[1] The coalition's cohesion strengthened during the failed Copenhagen talks at COP15 in 2009 and the Durban Platform at COP17 in 2011, where LMDC precursors resisted efforts to establish a new agreement without firm commitments from Annex I countries on emission reductions and support mechanisms.^[1] Informal meetings in Bonn and Bangkok in 2012, involving around 20 countries, marked the transition from loose alignments to a more structured bloc, setting the stage for the group's first formal gathering in Beijing on October 18–19, 2012, hosted by China.^[4][3] These early dynamics reflected pragmatic self-interest: developing countries with growing emissions sought to avoid caps that would constrain industrialization, while leveraging the UNFCCC's equity-based structure to demand reparative finance from historical polluters.^[11]

Formal Emergence in Climate Negotiations

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) coalesced as a formal negotiating bloc within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2012, amid growing tensions over the post-Kyoto architecture following the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action agreed at COP17 in Durban, South Africa, on December 11, 2011. This platform committed parties to negotiate a new legal instrument applicable to all by 2015, prompting concerns among certain developing nations that it could erode the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) by imposing undifferentiated obligations.^[3] The group's inaugural meeting occurred in Beijing, China, on October 18–19, 2012, hosted by the Chinese government and attended by representatives from Bolivia, China, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Pakistan, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and Venezuela. This gathering, convened ahead of COP18 in Doha, Qatar, focused on exchanging views and aligning strategies to safeguard developing countries' interests, particularly emphasizing that any new framework must uphold historical responsibility, equity, and adequate financial and technological support from developed nations.^[3][4] At COP18, held from November 26 to December 8, 2012, the LMDC began issuing coordinated statements, advocating for the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol and rejecting attempts to shift mitigation burdens onto developing countries without commensurate action from Annex I parties. The bloc's positions underscored opposition to non-market mechanisms that could bypass UNFCCC processes and insisted on ring-fencing adaptation and loss and damage as distinct from mitigation efforts. Subsequent intersessional meetings, such as those in Bonn in 2013, saw the LMDC articulate specific demands for the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP), including that the new agreement preserve the firewall between developed and developing countries' obligations and prioritize finance scaling to $100 billion annually by 2020 from public sources. By mid-2013, the group had formalized its role as a counterweight to more flexible developing country coalitions, consistently prioritizing CBDR-RCB (responsibility and capability) in submissions to the UNFCCC secretariat.^[12]

Expansion Beyond Climate Issues

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) bloc, while originating and predominantly operating within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), has extended its coordinated advocacy to critique unilateral economic measures by developed nations that intersect with climate policy, particularly those perceived as protectionist trade barriers. In July 2025, during the Bonn intersessional climate talks, LMDC representatives, speaking for Bolivia, insisted on agenda items addressing such measures, including carbon border adjustment mechanisms (CBAMs) like the European Union's, arguing they impose disproportionate burdens on developing economies by raising export costs and violating equity principles under the UNFCCC.^[13][14] These positions frame trade distortions as extensions of historical responsibilities, with LMDC emphasizing that such unilateral actions exacerbate global inequalities rather than fostering cooperative mitigation efforts.^[15] This spillover into trade-related discourse reflects broader geopolitical tensions, as LMDC statements have repeatedly opposed "green protectionism" and called for strengthened multilateralism over competitive trade wars, as articulated by group ministers ahead of COP27 in 2022.^[16] For instance, in November 2024 at COP29 preparations, LMDC highlighted unilateral measures as threats to global equity, urging their incompatibility with UNFCCC commitments and demanding compensatory mechanisms for affected developing states.^[15] Such advocacy, though rooted in climate forums, influences parallel discussions in bodies like the World Trade Organization (WTO), where member states like China and India—core LMDC participants—have raised similar concerns about environmental trade rules disadvantaging exporters from the Global South.^[17] Beyond direct trade critiques, LMDC coordination has appeared informally in United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and Human Rights Council (HRC) contexts on developmental rights, with member states aligning against Western-led agendas that prioritize conditional aid over sovereignty. In March 2022 HRC sessions, a coalition largely comprising LMDC countries resisted resolutions seen as diluting state autonomy in human rights frameworks, signaling shared resistance to perceived neocolonial impositions.^[18] However, these alignments occur more through ad hoc member-state cooperation than formalized LMDC expansion, as the group's charter and meetings remain UNFCCC-centric, with no dedicated structures for non-climate issues established as of 2025.^[1] This limited extension underscores causal linkages between climate finance demands and economic sovereignty, driven by empirical disparities in per capita emissions and historical emissions data, rather than a pivot to unrelated domains like security or migration.^[19]

Core Objectives and Principles

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), enshrined in Article 3.1 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted in 1992, posits that all countries share obligations for addressing climate change but that responsibilities vary based on historical emissions, economic capabilities, and developmental needs, with developed nations bearing the primary burden. Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) consistently interpret CBDR as requiring developed parties to undertake ambitious mitigation and provide financial, technological, and capacity-building support to developing nations, while rejecting efforts to impose comparable economy-wide emission reduction targets on all parties.^[20] This stance aligns with LMDC's broader advocacy for equity in global climate governance, emphasizing that historical cumulative emissions from industrialized countries—estimated at over 70% of total anthropogenic CO2 from 1850 to 2011—justify differentiated commitments.^[20] In UNFCCC negotiations, LMDC has actively defended CBDR against attempts to dilute it, such as proposals for uniform mitigation obligations across all nations. At COP20 in Lima in December 2014, LMDC interventions ensured the inclusion of explicit language reaffirming CBDR in the decision text on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, countering pushes for symmetry in responsibilities.^[21] Similarly, during the 2015 Paris Agreement negotiations, LMDC coordinated positions to preserve CBDR and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) in the treaty's core provisions, arguing that any erosion would undermine the UNFCCC's foundational equity principles and allow developed countries to evade leadership roles.^[22] LMDC submissions, such as their 2013 statement on the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform, framed CBDR as a "concrete treaty application of the scientific and environmental fact" of disparate historical contributions, insisting that developing countries' actions remain contingent on support from Annex I parties.^[20] LMDC continues to invoke CBDR in recent forums to operationalize differentiation, particularly in demands for enhanced ambition from developed nations. In a November 2024 intervention at the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Implementation, India speaking for LMDC reiterated that mitigation commitments must respect CBDR and respective capacities, urging developed countries to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 while scaling up finance beyond the $100 billion annual target.^[23] Their 2021 submission on Article 6.8 mechanisms emphasized applying CBDR to ensure non-market approaches prioritize equity, avoiding outcomes that burden developing parties disproportionately.^[24] This position has drawn criticism from some analysts for potentially overlooking current emission profiles of major LMDC members—such as China, responsible for 30% of global CO2 emissions in 2023—but LMDC maintains that CBDR remains rooted in UNFCCC text and historical accountability rather than shifting baselines.^[25]

Advocacy for Financial Reparations and Reforms

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) advocate for developed nations to provide substantial financial resources to address the disproportionate climate impacts borne by developing economies, emphasizing the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) enshrined in the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement. This includes demands for scaled-up public finance to support mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage, with LMDC submissions stressing that such funds must be new, additional, grant-based, and predictable to avoid diverting resources from development priorities.^[26] In joint statements, LMDC has criticized developed countries for failing to meet the $100 billion annual climate finance pledge from 2009 until its retrospective fulfillment in 2022, arguing this shortfall erodes negotiation trust and exacerbates vulnerabilities in member states.^{[27] [28]} Central to LMDC's position is the establishment and capitalization of dedicated mechanisms for loss and damage, viewed as compensation for irreversible climate harms attributable to historical emissions by industrialized nations. LMDC supported the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage in 2013 and pushed for its evolution into a dedicated fund, agreed at COP27 in November 2022 and operationalized at COP28 in December 2023, with an initial focus on particularly vulnerable developing countries. The group demands trillions in annual funding for this fund, far exceeding the $700 million in pledges secured by mid-2024, and opposes reliance on loans or insurance schemes that could burden debtors further, insisting instead on non-debt-creating support from developed parties.^[29] While LMDC avoids the term "reparations" in official UNFCCC texts to sidestep legal liability debates, their advocacy aligns with calls from broader developing coalitions for accountability for emissions since the Industrial Revolution, estimating needs at $400-580 billion annually by 2030 for loss and damage alone based on empirical impact models.^[30] Beyond immediate climate finance, LMDC seeks reforms to international financial institutions to enhance developing countries' access to concessional resources and representation. They have urged integration of climate risks into IMF surveillance and lending, including through special drawing rights (SDRs) reallocations—$650 billion issued globally in 2021, with LMDC pushing for targeted channeling to climate-vulnerable members via voluntary mechanisms.^[31] In submissions, LMDC calls for overhauling multilateral development banks (MDBs) like the World Bank to unlock $1 trillion in annual climate lending through capital increases and risk-sharing, criticizing current governance for underrepresenting emerging economies despite their growing emissions shares.^[32] For the new collective quantified goal (NCQG) on climate finance under Paris Article 9, LMDC proposes at least $1.3 trillion per year by 2030, primarily from developed countries' public budgets, with reforms to eligibility criteria to prioritize non-Annex I parties facing high adaptation costs estimated at 2-10% of GDP in low-income members.^{[33] [34]} These positions reflect LMDC's broader critique of inequitable global architecture, though implementation remains stalled amid disagreements on funding sources and baselines.^[35]

Opposition to Unilateral Measures by Developed Nations

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group has articulated strong opposition to unilateral measures imposed by developed nations in the name of climate action, contending that such actions, including carbon border adjustment mechanisms (CBAMs), constitute discriminatory trade barriers that exacerbate economic disparities and contravene principles of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) enshrined in the UNFCCC. These measures, such as the European Union's CBAM implemented provisionally from October 2023 and fully from 2026, require importers to purchase certificates for embedded carbon emissions in goods like cement, steel, and aluminum, which LMDC members argue disproportionately burdens their export-dependent economies without equivalent support for mitigation efforts in developing states.^[36][37] At the COP29 conference in Baku, Azerbaijan, in November 2024, Bolivia, speaking for the LMDC, alongside over 130 developing nations, condemned these unilateral trade measures as "unfair" and harmful to global cooperation, emphasizing their potential to fragment international climate efforts by prioritizing protectionism over multilateral commitments on finance and technology transfer.^[37][38] LMDC representatives highlighted that developed countries' failure to meet the $100 billion annual climate finance pledge—reached cumulatively only in 2022, two years late—renders such measures punitive rather than cooperative, as they impose additional costs estimated to reach €5 billion annually for affected developing exporters by 2030 without offsetting aid.^[17] This stance persisted into the June 2025 Bonn climate talks, where LMDC, supported by the G77 and China, proposed dedicated agenda items to scrutinize unilateral measures and their compatibility with UNFCCC Article 3.5, which urges parties to abstain from actions causing damage to other states' economies during climate responses. Developed nations, including the EU and US, resisted these inclusions, leading to procedural delays and underscoring LMDC's view that such opposition shields unilateralism from accountability.^[17][39] In a joint submission, LMDC invoked WTO rules against discrimination, arguing that measures like CBAM fail to account for varying national circumstances and risk retaliatory tariffs, potentially reducing global emissions reductions through heightened trade tensions rather than incentivizing joint action.^[40][15] LMDC's critiques extend to broader implications, positing that unilateralism erodes trust in forums like the UNFCCC by allowing developed economies—responsible for 79% of historical CO2 emissions—to externalize costs onto nations contributing just 21% despite facing disproportionate climate impacts, such as a 20-30% higher vulnerability in GDP losses from extreme weather.^[41] This position aligns with LMDC's advocacy for reformed global trade rules that prioritize equitable burden-sharing, as evidenced by their blocking of progress on unrelated agenda items until unilateral measures are addressed multilaterally.^[42]

Membership and Composition

List of Current Members

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) constitutes an informal coalition without a codified roster of members, allowing for fluid participation across UNFCCC sessions.^[1] As of sessions in 2023–2024, the group encompasses roughly 24 nations from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, focused on unified stances in climate diplomacy.^[1] Membership alignment is evidenced by joint submissions, coordinated statements, and representational speeches, such as Bolivia's address on behalf of the LMDC at COP29 in 2024.^[43] Countries routinely participating in or endorsing LMDC positions, drawn from documented group activities and analyses, include:

• Algeria
• Bangladesh
• Bolivia
• China
• Cuba
• Ecuador
• Egypt
• India
• Indonesia
• Iran
• Iraq
• Kuwait
• Malaysia
• Mali
• Nicaragua
• Pakistan
• Saudi Arabia
• Sri Lanka
• Sudan
• Syria
• Venezuela^[44][45]

This composition highlights a blend of major emitters, oil-producing states, and advocates for differentiated responsibilities, though exact involvement fluctuates by negotiation topic.^[8]

Criteria for Inclusion and Notable Exclusions

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group lacks codified membership criteria or a formal application process, functioning instead as an informal coalition of developing nations—typically non-Annex I parties under the UNFCCC—that align on key negotiating positions.^[1] Primary alignment centers on upholding the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC), which posits that developed countries bear greater historical responsibility for emissions and must provide finance, technology, and capacity-building support to enable developing countries' voluntary actions without compromising their development pathways.^[1][8] Countries join ad hoc based on shared opposition to proposals eroding this differentiation, such as uniform net-zero timelines by 2050 or expanded mitigation obligations for emerging economies absent commensurate support from industrialized states.^[46] As of 2023–2024, the group encompasses approximately 24 nations spanning Asia, Africa, and Latin America, often led by major emitters like China and India alongside oil-exporting states such as Saudi Arabia and Iran.^[1][47] This fluid structure allows participation from states endorsing LMDC statements or submissions, which emphasize equity, historical accountability, and rejection of unilateral measures by developed nations that could constrain sovereign development choices.^[7] No fixed roster exists, and involvement varies by session, with core members consistently defending the UNFCCC's foundational architecture against reforms perceived as blurring Annex I/non-Annex I distinctions.^[1][22] Notable exclusions encompass developing countries prioritizing vulnerability-driven agendas over strict CBDR adherence, such as the 39 members of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), which advocate aggressive global mitigation to avert sea-level rise threats, viewing LMDC stances as insufficiently urgent on emissions curbs.^[1][8] The 45 Least Developed Countries (LDCs) often diverge similarly, focusing on immediate adaptation finance and technical assistance rather than contesting differentiation frameworks, leading them to align more closely with dedicated LDC negotiating tracks.^[1] Within broader emerging economies, BASIC members like Brazil and South Africa have occasionally opted out of LMDC coordination, preferring flexible engagements in G77+China (134 developing states plus China) or independent pursuits that accommodate domestic priorities such as biofuels expansion or regional alliances.^[22][48] These exclusions highlight LMDC's role as a tactical subset of the G77, not a universal developing-country bloc, with non-participation stemming from strategic differences in balancing mitigation ambition against economic sovereignty.^[1][49]

Demographic and Economic Profile of Members

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group consists of approximately 24 nations, predominantly from Asia (including major players like China, India, and Indonesia), with significant representation from Africa (such as Egypt, Algeria, Mali, and Sudan) and Latin America (including Bolivia, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Venezuela).^[1] Membership emphasizes developing economies united in international negotiations, often including oil-exporting states from the Middle East (Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait) and South Asia (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka).^[50] Demographically, LMDC members represent over 50% of the global population, encompassing more than 4 billion people as of recent estimates, driven by populous nations like China (1.41 billion) and India (1.43 billion).^{[51] [45]} The group features youthful demographics typical of developing regions, with high dependency ratios and rapid urbanization; for instance, Indonesia (278 million) and Pakistan (245 million) contribute to dense, growing urban centers amid varying fertility rates.^[45] Ethnic and linguistic diversity is pronounced, spanning Indo-Aryan, Arab, and indigenous populations, though common challenges include vulnerability to climate impacts on agriculture-dependent rural majorities. Economically, LMDC countries exhibit a broad spectrum of per capita incomes, from upper-middle-income levels in Malaysia (approximately $11,800 GDP per capita in 2023) and Gulf oil producers like Saudi Arabia ($27,000) to low-income statuses in Mali and Sudan (under $1,000). Collectively, they include two of the world's largest economies by purchasing power parity—China and India—accounting for a substantial portion of global output, though aggregate nominal GDP shares are tempered by lower per capita figures averaging below the world mean. Key sectors include manufacturing and services in Asian giants, alongside heavy reliance on hydrocarbon exports in Middle Eastern and Latin American members (e.g., Venezuela's oil-dependent economy, which faced contraction amid sanctions and mismanagement as of 2023). This diversity underscores shared developmental priorities, such as infrastructure needs and commodity dependence, despite internal disparities.^[51]

Influence in Key International Forums

Role in UNFCCC and Climate Negotiations

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) functions as a negotiating coalition within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), coordinating positions among approximately 20-30 developing nations to defend principles of equity in global climate efforts. To amplify their influence, LMDC engages in UNFCCC COP meetings, aligns with broader coalitions such as G77+China to develop joint proposals, advocates for incorporating common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) into fund governance and financing mechanisms, and promotes concepts like just transition in negotiations.^[1] Emerging formally around 2007 with roots in earlier alignments, the group solidified its role by 2012 amid post-Durban Platform negotiations for a new climate agreement.^[1] LMDC emphasizes common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), insisting that historical emitters among developed countries bear primary obligations for mitigation, adaptation finance, and technology transfer before expecting comparable actions from developing parties.^[8] In Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings, LMDC has consistently intervened to preserve differentiation in mitigation commitments, opposing efforts to phase out the Annex I/non-Annex I divide that distinguishes developed from developing nations. During COP21 in Paris in December 2015, the bloc—comprising nearly 30 members including major economies like China and India—advanced proposals prioritizing developing countries' self-determined contributions over legally binding targets, influencing the Paris Agreement's structure of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) applicable to all parties but with differentiated implementation expectations.^[22] This stance ensured the agreement's preamble reaffirmed CBDR and respective capabilities, while rejecting uniform emission peaks for all nations.^[5] LMDC's advocacy extends to finance mechanisms, where it demands scaled-up public finance from developed countries—targeting trillions annually post-2025 under the new collective quantified goal (NCQG)—without reliance on private or market-based solutions that shift burdens to recipients. In submissions to UNFCCC bodies, such as the September 2023 intervention on NCQG, LMDC argued for finance roadmaps grounded in feasibility for developing parties, rejecting dilutions of grant-based, new, and additional funding principles established in earlier agreements like Copenhagen in 2009.^[32] Similarly, in technology transfer discussions at COP21, the group pushed for global goals on transfers from developed to developing countries, embedding these in the Paris Agreement's technology framework decisions.^[5] Post-Paris, LMDC has shaped ongoing talks on Article 6 carbon markets and non-market approaches, submitting proposals in 2021 to operationalize paragraph 8 of the Paris Agreement while safeguarding against greenwashing or inequitable offsets that undermine developing countries' development rights. At COP27 in 2022 and beyond, the bloc reiterated positions linking finance provisions to CBDR, critiquing developed nations' delays in fulfilling $100 billion annual pledges—met only in 2022 after repeated shortfalls—and advocating for loss and damage funds operationalized at that summit.^[30] Through joint statements and coordinated interventions, LMDC has amplified voices of BASIC countries (Brazil, South Africa, India, China) alongside smaller states, often bridging G77+China divides to block concessions eroding historical responsibility allocations.^[52]

Positions in WTO Trade Discussions

Members of the Like-Minded Developing Countries group align in WTO discussions to prioritize special and differential treatment (S&DT) for developing economies, seeking exemptions, longer transition periods, and technical assistance to safeguard policy space for industrialization and food security. This stance reflects their emphasis on addressing historical asymmetries in global trade rules, where developed nations benefited from prior liberalization without equivalent constraints.^[53] Countries like India, China, and Egypt have resisted efforts to erode S&DT, such as demands for "graduation" of emerging economies from preferential statuses, arguing that such changes undermine the WTO's development mandate without resolving core imbalances like agricultural subsidies in rich countries.^[54] In agriculture negotiations under the Doha Development Agenda, LMDC members have advocated for a permanent solution to public stockholding (PSH) programs, which procure staples at administered prices for domestic food security without triggering WTO subsidy caps. India, backed by China and over 80 developing countries including Egypt and Indonesia, maintains that PSH—critical for feeding hundreds of millions via programs like India's Public Distribution System—should not count toward Aggregate Measurement of Support limits, as current rules based on 1986-88 reference prices penalize inflation-adjusted policies.^{[55] [56]} Despite the 2013 Bali peace clause providing temporary safeguards, no agreement emerged by the 13th Ministerial Conference (MC13) in February-March 2024, with LMDC-aligned states blocking progress absent S&DT protections.^[57] China, holding nearly 500 million metric tons of wheat, rice, and maize stocks alongside India as of recent USDA estimates, supports these flexibilities to stabilize domestic markets and global prices.^[58] LMDC countries have critiqued trade-related environmental measures imposed by developed nations, such as the European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), launched in 2023, as protectionist and discriminatory under WTO's most-favored-nation and national treatment principles. India and China, key LMDC voices, argue CBAM ignores embedded emissions from imported inputs in developing supply chains and disproportionately burdens exporters of carbon-intensive goods like steel and cement, without accounting for lower per-capita emissions or development needs.^{[59] [60]} These concerns were raised in WTO's Committee on Trade and Environment, with calls for reforms to align such measures with differentiated responsibilities rather than unilateral penalties.^[61] On fisheries subsidies, LMDC members endorse disciplines on harmful practices but insist on S&DT carve-outs, including grace periods of 2-5 years for developing countries and exemptions for artisanal fishing. China ratified the 2022 WTO Agreement prohibiting subsidies for illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in June 2023, yet negotiations for a "second wave" targeting overcapacity stalled at MC13 amid disputes over enforcement and equity.^{[62] [63]} India, highlighting subsidies by distant-water fleets (estimated at $22 billion annually globally), pushed for transparency and curbs on major subsidizers while defending small-scale operators in LMDC peers like Indonesia and Sri Lanka.^{[64] [65]} Overall, these positions underscore a commitment to multilateralism centered on Doha unfinished business—agriculture market access, services, and non-agricultural tariffs—over plurilateral deals like e-commerce or investment facilitation, which LMDC states view as bypassing consensus and favoring advanced economies.^[66] At MC13, no breakthroughs occurred on these fronts, with LMDC-aligned negotiators prioritizing S&DT amid calls from developed members for reciprocity.^[67]

Engagement in UN General Assembly and Development Reforms

The Like-Minded Developing Countries coordinate positions within the UN General Assembly to advocate for reforms in the global development framework, prioritizing equitable resource allocation and structural changes to international financial institutions. This engagement underscores their view that developed nations bear primary responsibility for financing development in poorer countries, extending the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities beyond climate to broader sustainable development efforts. LMDC members, often aligning with the Group of 77 and China, have supported UNGA resolutions calling for enhanced official development assistance, debt sustainability mechanisms, and technology transfer to bridge implementation gaps in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.^[68] In specific UNGA-linked processes, such as preparations for the Fourth International Conference on Financing for Development (FfD4) scheduled for 2025 in Spain, LMDC representatives have pushed for reforms to the international financial architecture, including increased access to concessional loans and grants to address vulnerabilities in developing economies exacerbated by external shocks like commodity price volatility and global debt burdens exceeding $9 trillion for low- and middle-income countries as of 2023. Bolivia, speaking on behalf of the LMDC in related intersessional discussions, emphasized the urgency of scaling up long-term financing flows to support national development plans without imposing undue conditionalities that undermine sovereignty. This stance reflects empirical data on persistent underfunding, where official development assistance from OECD countries averaged $185 billion annually in 2022-2023, falling short of the 0.7% GNI target committed by many donors.^[69][40] LMDC advocacy in the UNGA also intersects with efforts to reform the UN development system itself, as outlined in General Assembly resolution 72/279 of 2018, by calling for better integration of development financing with capacity-building for SDGs implementation. They have critiqued existing mechanisms for insufficiently accounting for differentiated capacities, proposing burden-sharing arrangements where developed countries provide predictable public finance based on historical emissions and economic capabilities. For instance, in joint statements tied to UNGA high-level weeks, LMDC has highlighted the need for at least $1 trillion in annual mobilization for development-related needs from 2025 onward, drawing on causal links between underinvestment and stalled progress on goals like poverty eradication (SDG 1) and infrastructure (SDG 9). These positions, while rooted in data from UN reports showing developing countries' share of global GDP stagnating below 40% despite population majorities, have faced pushback for potentially delaying consensus on universal reforms.^[70]

Achievements and Impacts

Contributions to Paris Agreement Framework

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) coordinated positions among approximately 25-30 members during the COP21 negotiations in Paris from November 30 to December 12, 2015, emphasizing the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) to safeguard developing nations' developmental priorities within the emerging agreement.^[22][71] This stance influenced the agreement's structure by rejecting uniform mitigation obligations for all parties, instead promoting nationally determined contributions (NDCs) that allowed flexibility for developing countries based on their capabilities and support received.^[72] LMDC delegations, representing nations with significant global population shares including major emitters like China and India, issued joint statements underscoring equity as a foundational element, which helped embed references to fairness and historical responsibility in the preamble and operative articles.^[73] A core contribution was LMDC's advocacy for differentiated transparency and reporting frameworks under Article 13, ensuring developing countries faced less stringent requirements while still enabling global stocktakes to assess collective progress toward the long-term temperature goal in Article 2—limiting warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.^[71] They opposed proposals for immediate, binding economy-wide emission reduction targets applicable to all parties, instead supporting the ratcheting mechanism in Article 4, which requires parties to pursue progressively ambitious NDCs every five years, with developed countries continuing to lead in absolute emission reductions.^[74] This position, articulated in negotiation sessions, prevented a shift toward top-down Kyoto-style targets and preserved the bottom-up NDC approach central to the agreement's consensus adoption by 196 parties on December 12, 2015. LMDC also advanced provisions for finance, technology transfer, and capacity-building in Articles 9-11, insisting on developed countries' fulfillment of the pre-existing $100 billion annual climate finance commitment by 2020 as a floor, with public funds prioritized over private mobilization to support mitigation and adaptation in vulnerable nations.^[71][72] Their coordination bolstered the standalone Article 8 on loss and damage, institutionalizing the Warsaw International Mechanism and rejecting attempts to subsume it under adaptation, thereby recognizing non-economic losses from climate impacts in developing countries without assigning liability to emitters.^[5] Through persistent interventions in contact groups and high-level segments, LMDC bridged divides among G77+China subgroups, contributing to the agreement's legal form as a hybrid treaty that entered into force on November 4, 2016, after ratification by 55 parties representing at least 55% of global emissions. This framework has since guided over 190 countries in submitting initial NDCs, though implementation gaps persist due to uneven support provision.

Successful Advocacy for Equity in Global Institutions

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) have advanced equity in global climate governance by reinforcing the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) within the UNFCCC framework, particularly through coordinated interventions that shaped the Paris Agreement's structure in December 2015. This included ensuring that nationally determined contributions accounted for varying national circumstances and historical emissions disparities, preventing erosion of differentiation between developed and developing nations during negotiations.^[22] LMDC's bloc approach amplified voices from major emitters like China and India alongside smaller states, securing language on equity in Article 2 and the preamble, which mandates balancing mitigation, adaptation, and finance flows with fairness considerations.^[75] In climate finance discussions, LMDC advocacy contributed to the operationalization of the $100 billion annual pledge by developed countries, first agreed at COP15 in Copenhagen on December 18, 2009, and integrated into the Green Climate Fund mechanisms, with ex-post reporting formalized under the Paris Agreement to track fulfillment.^[34] By 2023, this pressure extended to the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on finance post-2025, where LMDC proposed a minimum mobilization of $1 trillion annually from 2025 to 2030, influencing negotiations at COP29 in Baku to prioritize grants over loans and address shortfalls in prior commitments, which totaled only $83.3 billion in 2020 against the target.^[70][76] Beyond UNFCCC, LMDC positions have intersected with broader UN reforms by opposing unilateral trade measures that impose disproportionate burdens on developing economies, as articulated in submissions to COP processes challenging carbon border adjustments under WTO compatibility. A June 3, 2025, intervention by Bolivia on behalf of LMDC called for international cooperation to mitigate climate-related trade restrictions, arguing they violate equity under UNFCCC Article 3.5 and Paris Agreement provisions.^[77] This advocacy aligns with UN General Assembly efforts to recalibrate international financial institutions for greater developing-country input, though LMDC's direct impact remains concentrated in climate arenas where their unified stance has preserved procedural equity in decision-making.^[78] LMDC's equity push in the global stocktake (GST) process under the Paris Agreement exemplifies sustained success, with modalities adopted at COP26 in Glasgow on November 13, 2021, incorporating equity assessments of collective progress every five years, starting with the first GST in 2023. This framework requires evaluating mitigation efforts against fair shares based on emissions, capabilities, and adaptation needs, countering attempts to dilute differentiation.^[75] Such outcomes stem from LMDC's refusal to concede on core principles, enabling developing countries to leverage historical responsibility arguments for enhanced technology transfer and capacity-building support, as reaffirmed in ministerial statements at COP27 in Sharm El-Sheikh on November 20, 2022.^[16]

Long-Term Effects on Developing Country Bargaining Power

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) bloc has strengthened the bargaining power of its members by fostering coordinated resistance to proposals that would erode the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) and responsibilities (CBDR), a foundational UNFCCC norm established in 1992 that assigns primary mitigation burdens to historical emitters among developed nations. This unity has allowed heterogeneous members, including major emitters like China (responsible for 30% of global CO2 emissions in 2023) and India (7%), alongside smaller economies such as Bolivia and Mali, to amplify their voices in negotiations, preventing dilution of differentiation that could impose symmetric obligations.^[79] Over the long term, this has preserved developmental policy space, enabling continued reliance on fossil fuels for industrialization without facing the same regulatory pressures as Annex I countries, as demonstrated by the bloc's role in sustaining voluntary nationally determined contributions (NDCs) post-Paris rather than mandatory caps.^[22] In multilateral forums, LMDC's strategic interventions have extracted recurrent concessions on finance and adaptation, bolstering leverage through the threat of impasse. For instance, during the 2015 Paris negotiations, LMDC coordination blocked draft texts favoring universal binding targets, contributing to the agreement's reliance on bottom-up NDCs, which deferred stringent enforcement and allowed developing members to set ambitious yet domestically feasible goals—China's NDC, for example, projected peak emissions around 2030 without absolute reductions until then.^[22] Longitudinally, this approach has reinforced demands for the $100 billion annual climate finance goal (pledged in 2009 and extended to 2025), with LMDC insistence linking progress on mitigation talks to verified fund delivery, as seen in stalled outcomes at COP24 (2018) and COP25 (2019) until partial reassurances. By 2023, cumulative shortfalls in finance delivery—estimated at $20-30 billion annually—underscored how the bloc's veto power has compelled repeated reaffirmations, sustaining pressure without reciprocal commitments. Empirically, LMDC's bloc dynamics have enhanced individual member leverage beyond what fragmented advocacy could achieve, as quantitative analyses of negotiation texts reveal higher position similarity within the group (e.g., 70-80% alignment on CBDR phrasing from 2011-2019) compared to non-coalition developing states.^[49] This cohesion has long-term implications for global institutions, diminishing the efficacy of developed-country coalitions like the Umbrella Group and forcing concessions in areas such as loss and damage funding, operationalized at COP27 (2022) after decades of LMDC pressure.^[80] However, the strategy's sustainability hinges on internal heterogeneity—oil exporters like Saudi Arabia (12% of global oil production in 2023) versus vulnerable states like Bangladesh—potentially straining unity if finance flows remain inadequate, yet it has demonstrably shifted power asymmetries by institutionalizing differentiation as a veto point in UNFCCC rules. ^[48] In WTO contexts, analogous LMDC-like alignments have similarly defended special and differential treatment, correlating with delayed plurilateral agreements on environmental goods trade from 2017 onward.

Criticisms and Controversies

Obstruction of Global Mitigation Efforts

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group has faced criticism for obstructing ambitious global climate mitigation by insisting on rigid interpretations of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" (CBDR-RC), which prioritizes historical emissions of developed nations over symmetric commitments from major developing emitters. This stance, articulated in LMDC interventions at UNFCCC sessions, resists efforts to impose time-bound peaking or reduction targets on high-growth economies within the bloc, such as China and India, whose combined emissions accounted for approximately 38% of global CO2 in 2023. Critics argue this perpetuates a framework where developing countries evade comparable scrutiny, delaying collective action needed to limit warming to 1.5°C, as global emissions rose 1.1% in 2023 despite pledges.^[79][8] In specific negotiations, LMDC members have blocked or diluted progress on mitigation pillars. For instance, during the first Global Stocktake (GST) at COP28 in 2023, LMDC alongside Arab group states impeded advancements in the energy package, opposing stronger language on transitioning away from fossil fuels to protect oil-dependent economies like Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Similarly, at Bonn intersessional meetings in 2025, LMDC demands for separate agenda items on public finance and equity sparked procedural disputes, stalling substantive talks on mitigation ambition under Article 4 of the Paris Agreement. These tactics, often framed as defending sovereignty, have been labeled as stumbling blocks by observers, contributing to weaker outcomes like the voluntary nature of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) without enforcement mechanisms.^[48][81][22] The obstruction's causal impact manifests in sustained emissions trajectories from LMDC heavyweights: China's CO2 output increased by 5.3% from 2022 to 2023, reaching 11.9 gigatons, while India's grew 5.5% to 2.9 gigatons, offsetting reductions elsewhere and widening the UNEP emissions gap to 2.6°C under current policies as of 2024. By vetoing proposals for developing-country baselines in mitigation reviews, LMDC undermines incentives for technology deployment and finance mobilization, as developed nations cite free-riding risks—evidenced by only 23% of promised $100 billion annual climate finance materializing by 2022. This dynamic, rooted in bloc coordination since 2012, prioritizes short-term economic growth over accelerated decarbonization, per analyses of UNFCCC deadlock patterns.^[79][82]

Hypocrisy of Major Emitters Claiming Victimhood

Critics of the Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group contend that its major members, including China and India, exhibit inconsistency by positioning themselves as primary victims of climate change—entitled to financial transfers and technology from developed nations—while contributing disproportionately to ongoing global emissions.^[1] In 2023, China alone accounted for approximately 30% of global fossil CO₂ emissions, totaling around 11.4 billion metric tons, exceeding the combined output of the United States (5.0 billion metric tons) and the European Union (2.8 billion metric tons).^[79] India, another core LMDC participant, emitted 2.8 billion metric tons that year, ranking as the world's third-largest emitter and reflecting a 5.6% increase from 2022 driven by coal and industrial expansion.^[79] These absolute emission levels, which dominate current atmospheric accumulation and future warming trajectories, contrast sharply with LMDC advocacy for common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), under which developed countries bear primary mitigation and adaptation burdens based on historical emissions.^[1] This perceived double standard extends to per capita metrics often invoked by LMDC representatives to justify leniency: China's per capita emissions stood at about 8 tons in 2023, below the U.S. figure of 15 tons but far above the global average of 4.7 tons, while India's remained low at 2 tons amid rapid industrialization. However, first-principles analysis of causal drivers emphasizes marginal emissions—those added today affecting near-term climate impacts—over historical precedents, as cumulative stocks stabilize slowly regardless of origin. LMDC countries have leveraged this framing in UNFCCC negotiations to demand trillions in climate finance for "loss and damage" without reciprocal commitments to peak emissions or phase out unabated fossil fuels, as evidenced by their resistance to stronger language in COP28 outcomes.^[76] For instance, while pushing for developed nations to fund adaptation in vulnerable states, LMDC heavyweights continue emissions-intensive growth; China's cumulative CO₂ share has risen to over 15% globally by 2023, surpassing many Annex I countries in recent decades.^[83] Further underscoring the critique, LMDC members dominate new coal-fired power development, the most carbon-intensive energy source. In the first half of 2025, China and India commissioned capacity accounting for 87% of global new coal additions, with China alone adding 21 gigawatts in that period amid ongoing construction of over 100 gigawatts announced or permitted.^[84] Indonesia, another LMDC participant, advanced multiple coal projects tied to nickel processing for batteries, while Vietnam permitted expansions exceeding 10 gigawatts.^[85] Such investments—often justified domestically as essential for poverty alleviation and energy security—directly contravene LMDC's international portrayal of developing nations as passive sufferers requiring external aid, rather than active contributors to the emissions driving sea-level rise, extreme weather, and biodiversity loss they claim to endure disproportionately. This dynamic has prompted observers, including analysts from energy research bodies, to highlight how LMDC cohesion shields high emitters from intra-developing differentiation, perpetuating a narrative of uniform vulnerability despite divergent responsibilities.^[48]

Ties to Authoritarian Governance and Geopolitical Agendas

The Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) coalition encompasses several states governed by authoritarian regimes, including China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Cuba, Nicaragua, Syria, and Vietnam, alongside more democratic members like India and Indonesia.^[86][4] This informal grouping, comprising approximately 24 developing nations as of 2023-2024, enables authoritarian participants to align on UNFCCC positions that safeguard regime stability by resisting binding emissions reductions or transparency mechanisms perceived as threats to sovereign control over resource extraction and industrial policy.^[1] For example, LMDC submissions have critiqued interpretations of UNFCCC Article 2.1c for inadequately addressing adaptation needs in developing countries without equivalent developed-nation finance, thereby deflecting pressure for domestic reforms that could challenge centralized economic planning in states like China and Venezuela.^[34] These ties manifest in coordinated advocacy for "common but differentiated responsibilities," a principle that authoritarian LMDC members invoke to prioritize historical equity claims over immediate mitigation, often blocking consensus on ambitious targets. At COP28 in 2023, LMDC-aligned fossil fuel exporters, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, contributed to diluting phase-out language in the final text, preserving economic models reliant on oil revenues that underpin regime legitimacy.^[87] Similarly, during COP29 deliberations in 2024, resistance from LMDC states undermined enhancements to transition commitments, reflecting a strategic use of the group to maintain geopolitical leverage in energy-dependent autocracies.^[88] Geopolitically, China has assumed de facto leadership within LMDC since hosting its inaugural meeting in Beijing on October 18-19, 2012, utilizing the platform to project influence across the Global South and counterbalance Western-led initiatives.^[3] This role aligns with Beijing's broader agenda of promoting multipolar governance, as evidenced by LMDC coordination with BASIC countries to shape post-Paris negotiations, including protests against pre-2020 implementation reviews at COP23 in 2017 that could expose major emitters to scrutiny.^[89] Authoritarian cohesion within LMDC thus extends China's soft power, fostering alliances that prioritize development sovereignty—often code for unchecked state-led growth—over universal climate imperatives, while shielding partners like Iran and Syria from isolation on emissions accountability.^[90]

Recent Developments

Post-Paris Negotiations and COP Engagements (2016-2022)

Following the adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2015, the Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) group, comprising nations such as China, India, Brazil, South Africa, Bolivia, Egypt, and Iran, continued to prioritize the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) in UNFCCC negotiations. In the Marrakech sessions of COP22 (November 2016), LMDC members advocated for enhanced support mechanisms, including technology transfer and capacity-building for developing states, while resisting efforts to accelerate mitigation ambitions without corresponding financial commitments from Annex I countries. Their positions aligned with the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action, emphasizing implementation fidelity to Paris without imposing undue burdens on emerging economies. At COP23 in Bonn (November 2017), under Fiji's presidency, LMDC engaged in the initiation of the Talanoa Dialogue, a facilitative process to inform the 2018 facilitative dialogue on global stocktake. Represented by spokespersons from member states like India and Egypt, the group stressed historical emitters' responsibility for pre-2020 gaps in emission reductions and called for scaled-up adaptation finance, projected to require $140-300 billion annually for developing countries by 2030. They opposed premature ratcheting up of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) absent verifiable new and additional finance, influencing the dialogue's focus on transparency frameworks that accommodate varying national circumstances. In COP24 at Katowice (December 2018), Iran delivered LMDC's joint closing plenary statement on the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement (APA), Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI), and Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA), reiterating demands for a rulebook that operationalizes equity through flexible compliance and avoids one-size-fits-all transparency requirements. The group supported the Katowice Climate Package's adoption on December 15, 2018, which established modalities for the global stocktake and enhanced transparency framework, but critiqued provisions perceived as eroding differentiation, such as uniform reporting on mitigation. LMDC's advocacy contributed to provisions allowing developing countries time-bound exemptions for certain reporting capacities.^[91] During COP25 in Madrid (December 2019), LMDC issued informal notes on transparency, insisting that modalities from COP24 be preserved without revisions that could prejudice developing countries' implementation under Article 13 of the Paris Agreement. On carbon markets under Article 6, the group prioritized avoiding share-of-proceeds mechanisms for non-CO2 sectors and supported international transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs) that maintain environmental integrity while enabling voluntary cooperation among developing nations.^[92] Negotiations stalled on these issues, deferring resolutions to future sessions, with LMDC attributing delays to developed countries' reluctance to commit $100 billion annually in climate finance as pledged in Copenhagen.^[93] At COP26 in Glasgow (November 2021), LMDC members, including China and India, intervened to amend the draft cover decision's language on fossil fuels, changing "phase out" of unabated coal and inefficient fossil fuel subsidies to "phase down" on November 13, 2021, arguing that abrupt transitions threatened energy security and development in the Global South.^[94] The group endorsed differentiated NDC update timelines—every five years for developed nations versus flexibility for others—and backed the $100 billion goal's extension to 2025 with a new collective quantified goal post-2025 exceeding prior levels.^[95] However, they criticized the outcomes for insufficient adaptation finance scaling, estimated at under $20 billion mobilized in 2019-2020 against needs exceeding $200 billion yearly.^[96] In COP27 at Sharm El-Sheikh (November 2022), LMDC ministers outlined expectations for operationalizing the $100 billion finance goal, advancing adaptation through the Glasgow-Sharm El-Sheikh Ministerial Declaration, and establishing a loss and damage fund, which was agreed on November 20, 2022, as a multilateral mechanism without liability or compensation implications for contributors.^[97][98] Bolivia's lead negotiator, speaking for LMDC, highlighted cumulative historical emissions by developed countries—accounting for over 50% of atmospheric CO2 since 1850—while resisting phase-down accelerations without technology and finance transfers.^[99] The Sharm El-Sheikh Implementation Plan incorporated LMDC priorities on early warnings and food systems resilience, though finance mobilization remained below targets, with only $83.3 billion reported for 2020.^[100]

Activities and Positions in 2023-2025

At the COP28 conference in Dubai from November 30 to December 13, 2023, the Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC) advocated for the operationalization of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities principles, submitting a request for a dedicated agenda item at COP28, CMA5, and SB59.^[101] The group warned against negotiation language that could undermine prior agreements and pushed for a "phase down" of unabated fossil fuels, aligning with positions from members including China, India, and Saudi Arabia, in opposition to stronger phase-out demands from developed nations and vulnerable island states.^[102][103] LMDC insisted on adopting the global stocktake texts as a single package and accused developed countries of hypocrisy for failing to meet historical emission responsibilities while pressuring developing nations on mitigation.^[104][105] During COP29 in Baku from November 11 to 22, 2024, LMDC held coordination meetings and reinforced demands for substantial increases in climate finance under the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG), with members like India emphasizing predictable, grant-based funding from developed countries to support adaptation and mitigation without imposing undue burdens on emerging economies.^[106][107] The group, in coordination with G77+China and the African Group, proposed scaling finance mechanisms and critiqued insufficient developed-country offers, while underscoring the global stocktake dialogue's focus on historical emitters' accountability rather than uniform ambition across all parties.^[76][108] In early 2025, LMDC submitted positions on the "Baku to Belém Roadmap to 1.3T," interpreting the NCQG decision to prioritize scaling public finance flows to developing countries through enhanced contributions from developed nations, excluding reliance on private or South-South finance as primary mechanisms.^[109] At the June 2025 Bonn intersessional talks (SB62), the group proposed agenda items on unilateral trade measures like carbon border adjustments that could disadvantage developing exporters and demanded full inclusion of just transition workplan elements from COP28 decision 3/CMA.5, rejecting dilutions amid pushback from developed parties.^[14][40] These efforts highlighted LMDC's consistent emphasis on differentiated obligations, with major emitter members resisting binding mitigation timelines absent commensurate finance and technology transfers.^[110]