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Maugris
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Maugris or Maugis was one of the heroes of the chansons de geste and romances of chivalry and the Matter of France that tell of the legendary court of King Charlemagne. Maugis was cousin to Renaud de Montauban and his brothers, son of Beuves of Aygremont and brother to Vivien de Monbranc. He was brought up by Oriande the fairy, and became a great enchanter. He won the magical horse Bayard and the sword Froberge which he later gave to Renaud.[1]
French texts
[edit]The oldest extant version of the story of Maugris was the anonymous Old French chanson de geste Quatre Fils Aymon dating from the late 12th century. It tells the tale of the four sons of Duke Aymon (Renaud de Montauban, Guichard, Allard and Richardet), their magical horse Bayard, and their adventures and revolt against the emperor Charlemagne.
From the 13th century on, other texts concerning Maugris were created; together with the original, these are grouped as the "Renaud de Montauban cycle". These poems are: Maugis d'Aigremont (story of the youth of Maugis), Mort de Maugis (story of the death of Maugis), Vivien de Monbranc (story of the brother of Maugis), Bueve d'Aigremont (story of the father of Maugis, Bueve d'Aigremont, brother to Girart de Roussillon and Doon de Nanteuil).[2]
Italian texts
[edit]Along with Renaud (as Rinaldo), Maugris, as Malagi or Malagigi, is an important character in Italian Renaissance epics, including Morgante by Luigi Pulci, Orlando Innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto.
References
[edit]- (in French) Hasenohr, Geneviève and Michel Zink, eds. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age. Collection: La Pochothèque. Paris: Fayard, 1992. ISBN 2-253-05662-6
- Knyght.org - a site about knights.
- ^ Counson, Albert (1907). "Noms épiques entrés dans le vocabulaire commun". Romanische Forschungen. 23 (1): 401–413. JSTOR 27935661.
- ^ Hasenohr and Zink, 1257-8.
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Maugris
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Identity and Origins
Family Lineage
Maugris, also known as Maugis d'Aigremont, was the son of Duke Beuves d'Aigremont and his wife Avice.[4] He and his twin brother, Vivien de Monbranc, were born during a period of turmoil as their father faced escalating tensions with Charlemagne.[1] This immediate family connection positioned Maugris within the noble lineage of Aigremont, a domain central to the baronial revolts depicted in the Matter of France.[5] Within the broader Aymonid family tree, Beuves d'Aigremont was the brother of Duke Aymon of Dordonne, making Maugris first cousin to Aymon's four sons: Renaud de Montauban (known as Rinaldo in Italian adaptations), Alard, Richier, and Guischart.[6] These familial ties integrated Maugris into the Quatre Fils Aymon cycle, a key subset of the Charlemagne romances focused on the exploits and rebellions of Aymon's lineage against imperial authority.[7] The Aymonids, including branches like the Beuves clan, represented a network of vassals whose loyalties often clashed with Charlemagne's court, as explored in interconnected epics from the late 12th and early 13th centuries.[2] The family's exile and subsequent conflicts arose directly from these loyalties, particularly after Charlemagne ordered the murder of Beuves d'Aigremont during a summons to court around Christmas, prompting retaliation and flight by his sons and kin.[2] This event, narrated in late 12th-century texts like the precursors to the Quatre Fils Aymon, led to the dispersal of the Aigremont heirs, with Maugris separated early in life and raised by the fairy Oriande.[7] The resulting feuds, fueled by avenging paternal death and defending familial honor, permeated the cycle's narratives, underscoring the Aymonids' role as rebel paladins.[5]Etymology and Name Variations
The name Maugris, a variant spelling commonly used in modern references to the medieval literary figure, originates from the Old French "Maugis," appearing in 13th-century chansons de geste such as Maugis d'Aigremont. This form is a diminutive of the Norman personal name Mauger, derived from the ancient Germanic compound Madalgar or Malger, combining elements meaning "counsel" (madal-) and "spear" (-ger), thus connoting "counsel-spear" or a figure of strategic might in battle.[8][9] In Italian adaptations, the name evolves to Malagi, Malagigi, or occasionally Malagi, reflecting phonetic and cultural assimilation during the transition from French epic traditions to Renaissance vernacular literature. These forms appear prominently in 15th- and 16th-century works, such as Luigi Pulci's Morgante (circa 1480) and Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (1516–1532), where Malagigi serves as a cunning enchanter allied with Rinaldo (Renaud). The shift from "Maugis" to "Malagigi" may also evoke connotations of "mighty servant" or retain the Germanic root's sense of power, adapted to Italian chivalric narratives that emphasized trickery and magic.[10] This linguistic evolution traces from 12th- and 13th-century French manuscripts, including fragments in Franco-Italian hybrids like the Geste Francor (late 13th century), to fuller Renaissance Italian epics influenced by oral cantari and Latin chronicles of Charlemagne's era. Such name variations mirror broader cultural shifts in chivalric storytelling, from feudal French emphases on lineage and conquest to Italian humanist integrations of enchantment and satire, transforming the character across European literary traditions.[10]Character Traits and Abilities
Magical Powers and Enchantments
Maugris, also known as Maugis d'Aigremont, acquired his profound magical abilities through his upbringing by the fairy Oriande in her magical domain at Rosefleur, where she served as both foster mother and mentor, imparting knowledge of ancient spells and illusions that set him apart from ordinary knights.[11] This fairy-touched education transformed the young orphan into a master enchanter, blending the realms of epic heroism and supernatural romance within the Carolingian tradition.[12] His repertoire of enchantments included mastery over illusions and deceptions to outwit adversaries, as well as control over natural elements and animals, often employed strategically to aid his family's cause without direct confrontation.[13] These abilities, drawn from his apprenticeship under Oriande's uncle Baudri, a necromancer, emphasized ritualistic invocations, study of grimoires, and elemental control rather than brute force.[12] As a trickster wizard, Maugris frequently used his magic to outwit adversaries through cunning illusions and enchantments, such as conjuring phantom beasts to scatter foes or employing charms to pacify wild animals during his adventures.[13] This approach contrasted sharply with the non-magical paladins like Roland, who relied on chivalric prowess and divine favor, positioning Maugris as a unique "fairy-touched" figure who bridged the mortal and otherworldly in the Carolingian cycle.[5] His enchantments, while potent, were portrayed as extensions of his intellect, enabling him to support his cousins' quests—such as briefly aiding in the acquisition of the enchanted horse Bayard—without overshadowing their heroic deeds.[13]Key Possessions and Artifacts
Maugris, raised in the fairy realm by Oriande la Fée, acquired several enchanted artifacts that defined his role as a sorcerer-knight in the chansons de geste. Foremost among these is the magical horse Bayard, which he tamed through enchantment on the isle of Boucaut during his early adventures seeking his family. Bayard possesses extraordinary abilities, including the capacity to carry multiple riders at once and to leap vast distances, enabling swift escapes and tactical maneuvers in combat. These qualities made Bayard indispensable for Maugris's quests against Saracen forces, and later, he transferred the steed to his cousin Renaud de Montauban, where it symbolized familial loyalty and supernatural aid in the broader Aymonid cycle.[11] Another pivotal possession is the sword Froberge, an enchanted blade forged by fairies, renowned for its unbreakable edge and its glow during battle, which enhanced its wielder's prowess. Maugris won Froberge by slaying the Saracen admiral Anthenor in a daring confrontation amid his youthful exploits. The sword's fairy origins tied directly to Maugris's upbringing, and following his own trials, he gifted it to Renaud, underscoring the transfer of magical heritage within the Aymonid line and its role in bolstering their resistance against imperial foes.[11][14] Maugris also obtained a magical ring from Oriande at Rosefleur, which provided protection against harm and aided in evasion during quests against Saracen kings. This artifact, rooted in his fairy tutelage, was essential for his stealthy operations. Complementing it was a magical horn, used in his encounters to perform enchantments and tricks capable of influencing others in moments of crisis.[11][5] Collectively, these possessions—Bayard, Froberge, the ring, and the horn—embody Maugris's fairy heritage, blending enchantment with chivalric valor to aid the Aymonid rebellion. They enabled the sons of Aymon to challenge Charlemagne's authority, symbolizing otherworldly intervention in their protracted struggles for autonomy and justice.[14]Role in Chansons de Geste
Conflicts with Charlemagne
Maugris, also known as Maugis d'Aigremont, shifts his allegiance to support his cousin Renaud de Montauban and the other sons of Aymon during their exile and rebellion. This transition occurs after Charlemagne orders the murder of Duke Beuve d'Aigremont, Maugris's father, violating a safe-conduct and igniting the familial feud central to the Renaud de Montauban cycle.[2][15] In key events of the Renaud de Montauban, Maugris employs his magical abilities to safeguard the Aymonids from imperial pursuit, particularly during the siege of Montauban, where he conjures illusions to disguise the family's movements and evade Charlemagne's forces. For instance, he casts a spell inducing slumber upon Charlemagne and his army, allowing the rebels to capture the emperor temporarily before Renaud releases him out of honor. These enchantments, including deceptive apparitions and protective veils, repeatedly thwart sieges and ambushes, enabling the Aymonids to maintain their resistance without direct confrontation.[16][15] Maugris's actions were driven by a profound sense of familial honor, prioritizing blood ties over feudal obligations to Charlemagne, which led to his portrayal in pro-Charlemagne narratives as a reluctant traitor compelled by circumstance rather than personal ambition. This internal conflict highlighted the tension between loyalty to kin and the emperor, positioning Maugris as a figure of moral ambiguity in the epics of revolt.[15] The conflicts culminated in varied resolutions across texts, including temporary reconciliations where Maugris facilitated peace negotiations between the Aymonids and Charlemagne, though full pardon eluded the family. In later accounts, such as the Mort de Maugis, he retreated into exile with his kin, ultimately meeting his death in isolation, underscoring the enduring consequences of the rebellion.[15]Alliances and Battles Against Saracens
In the chanson de geste Maugis d'Aigremont, composed in the early 13th century, Maugris's early exploits center on the defense of Aigremont against invading Saracen forces led by the emir Yvorin de Mondidier. As a young enchanter raised by the fairy Oriande, Maugris returns to his homeland during the siege, employing his magical abilities to turn the tide of battle. He notably defeats the Saracen giant and wizard Noiron, a formidable champion known for his dark sorcery, through a duel where Maugris uses enchantments to outmaneuver and slay his opponent, thereby breaking the enemy's morale and aiding in the castle's relief.[17] Maugris forms key alliances that enhance his effectiveness against Saracen adversaries, beginning with his foster mother Oriande, who imparts necromantic knowledge and provides magical support, such as summoning elemental forces during combat. He later joins forces with fellow paladins, including his cousins Renaud de Montauban and the sons of Aymon—Alard, Richart, and Guischart—in quests to reclaim Christian territories from Muslim incursions. These partnerships are evident in joint campaigns to liberate cities like Rosefleur from Saracen control, where Maugris's strategic illusions and telepathic deceptions coordinate attacks, allowing the allies to overcome numerically superior foes.[5][17] The battles depicted in Maugis d'Aigremont and the related Bueve d'Aigremont highlight Maugris's innovative use of magic in warfare, such as creating phantom armies to sow confusion during sieges and employing enchanted beasts like the horse Bayard to outflank Saracen lines. In one pivotal engagement, he routs an invading force in Sicily by hypnotizing guards and igniting enemy camps with illusory fires, preventing the fall of Christian outposts against overwhelming odds. These narratives underscore a thematic promotion of crusader ideals within the Matter of France, portraying Maugris's sorcery as a divinely sanctioned tool for defending Christendom, converting pagan leaders like the emir Anthenor, and restoring territorial sovereignty through holy warfare.[5][17]Literary Appearances
French Texts
Maugris appears prominently in several medieval French chansons de geste from the late 12th and 13th centuries, forming part of the larger Aymon cycle within the Matter of France. These texts portray him as a sorcerer and warrior who aids his cousins, the sons of Aymon, in their rebellion against Charlemagne, blending epic heroism with elements of magic and enchantment. Composed during the peak of chanson de geste production in northern France, these works reflect the era's fascination with feudal conflicts, Christian-Saracen warfare, and the supernatural, often drawing on oral traditions to emphasize family loyalty and divine justice. In the Quatre Fils Aymon (also known as Renaut de Montauban), a late 12th-century epic of approximately 18,000 verses composed during the reign of Philip Augustus, Maugris serves as the magical supporter of his cousins Renaud, Aalart, Richart, and Guischart de Montauban during their revolt against Charlemagne. He joins them in Gascony, using his enchantments to disguise himself and steal royal treasures, including the crown, from the emperor's court; he also employs spells to escape imprisonment and thwarts an ambush by King Yon of Gascony, orchestrated by Charlemagne's forces. Surviving in at least 13 manuscripts, including a notable Franco-Italian codex, the poem highlights Maugris's role in sustaining the rebels' defiance through cunning and the supernatural, culminating in a negotiated peace that spares the brothers but leads to their eventual pilgrimage and dispersal.[2] The 13th-century Maugis d'Aigremont, a dedicated origin story spanning around 9,000 verses, details Maugris's youth, his conflicts with Saracens, and the acquisition of key artifacts, establishing his backstory within the Aymon cycle. Born as the twin of Vivien during a Saracen invasion of Aigremont, Maugris is saved from kidnapping by the fairy Oriande, who raises him and teaches him necromancy; he later studies the black arts at a college in Paris under the tutor Baldarijs. He tames the magical horse Bayard on the island of Vulcanus and uses his powers, aided by the elf Spiet, to defend Oriande's realm of Rosefloer from invaders like the Spanish king Anthenor. After inconclusive duels with his unrecognized brother Vivien, Maugris reconciles with him, liberates Aigremont from Saracen control, conquers the island of Mayorken to free his aunt Ysane, and reunites his dispersed family, though he remains excluded from Charlemagne's reconciliation due to his sorcery. Only three manuscripts survive—Peterhouse College MS 201 (Cambridge), BnF MS fr. 766 (Paris), and BnF MS n.a. fr. 4970 (Montpellier)—reflecting its relative obscurity compared to core cycle texts, with variations in length and emphasis on magical episodes across redactions. A critical edition was published by Philippe Vernay in 1973.[5][18] Related works further interconnect Maugris's narrative within the cycle. The Mort de Maugis, a short 13th-century fragment of about 1,250 verses, depicts his death as a pious hermit in the Ardennes forest, renouncing worldly power after aiding the Aymonids; it diverges from the Quatre Fils Aymon by portraying him briefly elected as pope in Rome before withdrawing to solitude. Vivien de Monbranc, a transitional 13th-century chanson of roughly 1,100 verses, focuses on Maugris's twin brother Vivien, raised by the Saracen emir Beufloer in Monbranc after his kidnapping, and their joint liberation of Aigremont, bridging Maugis d'Aigremont and Quatre Fils Aymon. Bueve d'Aigremont, a 13th-century epic of about 9,000 verses, recounts the exploits of Maugris's father Beuve (brother to Girart de Roussillon) and the initial family dispersal due to Ganelon's treachery, setting the stage for Maugris's vengeful role. These texts, composed amid the height of chanson de geste popularity in the 13th century—a period marked by over 100 such epics circulating in manuscript and performance—emphasize the cycle's themes of familial vengeance and magical intervention against betrayal.[19]Italian Texts
In Italian Renaissance epics, the character of Maugris evolves into Malagigi, a more multifaceted enchanter whose portrayal shifts from the solemn heroism of French medieval sources to a blend of cunning trickery and humanistic wit, often infused with comedic and romantic elements.[10] This transformation reflects the broader adaptation of Carolingian legends in Italy, where Malagigi serves as a magical ally to paladins like Rinaldo, employing necromancy and prophecy to navigate chivalric conflicts while embodying the era's intellectual curiosity about classical antiquity.[4] In Luigi Pulci's Morgante (late 15th century), Malagigi emerges as a cunning wizard who aids Rinaldo in battles against Saracens and giants, notably summoning devils for prophetic visions during the Rencesvals episode (Cantos XXVI–XXVIII). His magic, such as commandeering the horse Baiardo, is portrayed as benevolent yet constrained by divine natural limits, critiquing Neoplatonic ideas in a nod to Florentine humanism under the Medici.[20] Pulci infuses Malagigi's actions with humor, highlighting his manipulative cleverness against antagonists like Gano, which lightens the epic's tone compared to earlier traditions.[10] Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato (1480s) expands Malagigi's trickster role, emphasizing comedic intrigues at court where he uses spells to uncover secrets, summon fiends, and even kidnap Rinaldo for a damsel's scheme (Book I, Canto I). As a vigilant magician among knights, he weaves practical deceptions that propel romantic and adventurous plots, showcasing Italian innovations in blending chivalric duty with playful romance.[21][22] Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (1516–1532) further develops Malagigi as an enchanter within the expansive Orlando cycle, where his necromancy and prophecies—such as foretelling Avarice's scourge in Canto XXVI or guiding Rinaldo in later cantos (XLIV–XLV)—interlace with romantic subplots and narrative complexity. Prominent from Canto 25 onward, he aids paladins through witty sorcery, including trance-inducing spells, while his character draws on classical mythological motifs like those of Circe to enrich the humanistic fusion of epic and antiquity.[23][10][24] These adaptations underscore Italian epics' cultural shift toward satire and intellectual play, transforming Malagigi into a symbol of Renaissance ingenuity.[10]Cultural Legacy
Influence on Later Romances
The archetype of Maugris as a cunning magical aide also appears in Spanish chivalric epics. In Iberian adaptations of Italian romances, such as 16th-century Spanish versions of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, Malagigi reemerges as Malgesí, a necromantic knight whose spells resolve romantic and martial conflicts, extending the Carolingian influence into hybrid Peninsular narratives that emphasize enchanted alliances.[25] Similar echoes occur in German epics like the 13th-century Reinfried von Braunschweig, where wizardly counselors draw on Matter of France motifs to aid imperial quests, perpetuating Maugris's legacy in Central European chivalric traditions. In 16th- and 17th-century Italian and French prose romances, Maugris/Malagigi featured prominently in expansions of the Carolingian cycle, transforming verse epics into elaborate prose continuations that amplified his role as a narrative catalyst. Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (1516, revised 1532) integrates Malagigi as a master necromancer who summons demons and crafts illusions to aid Charlemagne's paladins, blending satire with chivalric adventure and influencing subsequent works like Torquato Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata (1581). French prose adaptations, such as the 16th-century Histoire des seigneurs de Montauban, recast Maugris's enchantments in expansive cycles that interweave Carolingian lore with Renaissance humanism, extending the character's utility in plots of betrayal, redemption, and magical intervention.[26] Scholars view Maugris as a literary bridge between pagan fairy lore and Christian knighthood, embodying the medieval synthesis of pre-Christian enchantment with feudal piety; his upbringing by Oriande imparts illicit arts that he ultimately directs toward defending Christendom against Saracens.[13] This duality—fairy-derived magic serving orthodox causes—highlights tensions in late medieval texts, where figures like Maugris negotiate supernatural heritage within a Christian framework, influencing the genre's exploration of moral ambiguity in chivalric heroism.Adaptations in Modern Media
In the role-playing game Ars Magica, first published in 1987 by Chaosium and later by Atlas Games, Maugris is reimagined as a powerful mage of the Diedne house, a lineage associated with ancient druidic traditions and shapeshifting. This portrayal positions him as an enchanter tied to mythic Europe around 1220, where his magical prowess aids in covenants and adventures, diverging from his medieval roots by integrating him into a hermetic magic system that emphasizes laboratory work and seasonal rituals.[27] Holly Black and Cassandra Clare's *Magisterium* series (2014–2018), a young adult fantasy pentalogy published by Scholastic, features a villainous Makar named Maugris who achieves immortality by possessing successive bodies, echoing themes of eternal life through enchantment but transforming the character into a chaotic antagonist wielding void magic. This adaptation draws on Maugris's historical reputation as an immortal enchanter while amplifying his role in a school-based magical conflict, where body transference serves as a plot device for moral ambiguity and resurrection.[28] In DC Comics, Malagigi appears as Charlemagne's court wizard in the 1980s series Arak, Son of Thunder (issues #1–12, 1982–1984), where he serves as a trusted advisor employing sorcery to combat supernatural threats in a post-Roman Europe. This depiction casts him as a heroic enchanter allied with Viking warrior Arak, emphasizing his advisory role and magical artifacts over any adversarial traits, in a blend of historical fantasy and superhero elements.[29] Fan works inspired by the Fate/stay night visual novel and its expansive multimedia franchise (Type-Moon, 2004 onward) often portray Malagigi as a Caster-class Servant specializing in illusion magic and mental interference, depicted as a cunning, hated enchanter due to his deceptive spells and alliances in Holy Grail War scenarios. These non-canonical interpretations, prevalent in fan fiction and doujinshi, heighten his treacherous archetype from medieval tales, using game mechanics to explore betrayal and beguilement in alternate historical summonings.[30] Contemporary medieval studies have reevaluated Maugris's (or Maugis d'Aigremont's) image, moving beyond outdated portrayals of him as a marginal or inherently treacherous figure in chansons de geste toward a more nuanced understanding of his role as a hybrid epic-romance hero whose magic integrates cunning adventure with elemental mastery. Scholarship highlights how his enchantments, such as charms against beasts, complicate genre boundaries and reflect late medieval mystification, repositioning him as a central innovator in magical narratives rather than a peripheral trickster.[13] Oriande appears in illustrations from late medieval illuminated prose adaptations of Maugis d'Aigremont (15th century), where she is depicted alongside Maugis and Bayard in the visual culture of the period.[31] In the 20th century, French poet Guillaume Apollinaire evoked the fée Oriande as an oneiric presence in his poem "Oriande" from the collection Poèmes à Lou, portraying her living in the castle of Rose-Fleur.[32]References
- https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Po%C3%A8mes_%C3%A0_Lou/Oriande