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Meriam language
Meriam language
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Meriam
Eastern Torres Strait
Meriam Mir
RegionMurray Island, Torres Strait, Queensland, Australia
EthnicityMeriam
Native speakers
217 (2016 census)[1]
Dialects
  • Erub
  • Ugar
Eastern Torres Strait Islander Sign Language
Language codes
ISO 639-3ulk
Glottologmeri1244
AIATSIS[2]Y3
ELPMeriam
Linguasphere20-OD(A-a)
Meriam Mir is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population.[3]

Meriam (Meriam Mir: Meriam Mìr; also Miriam, Meryam, Mer, Mir, Miriam-Mir, etc. and Eastern, Isten, Esten and Able Able) or the Eastern Torres Strait language is the language of the people of the small islands of Mer (Murray Island), Waier and Dauar, Erub (Darnley Island), and Ugar (Stephens Island) in the eastern Torres Strait, Queensland, Australia. In the Western Torres Strait language, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, it is called Mœyam or Mœyamau Ya. It is the only Papuan language in Australian territory.

Classification

[edit]

Meriam was classified in the Eastern Trans-Fly family of the Trans–New Guinea Phylum by Stephen Wurm, who however felt that these have retained remnants of pre-Trans–New Guinea languages; this is followed by Ethnologue (2005). In 2005 Malcolm Ross concluded that the Eastern Trans-Fly languages were not part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. R. M. W. Dixon (2002) regards claims of a relationship between the Fly River languages and Meriam as unproven, though what he bases his claim on is not clear, as Meriam Mir has a high cognacy rate with its sister languages, and a certain amount of mutual intelligibility is claimed by Meriam speakers. Mitchell finds that Meriam Mìr has 78% cognates with its sister Trans-Fly Papuan languages, the remaining vocabulary being mainly of Australian origin.[4] Such Trans-Fly cognates include personal pronouns, and verbal and nominal morphology.

Percentages of Australian, Papuan and Austronesian content
(2) = number of items; Mitchell, Holman et al. 40-word list
Source WCL MM
Australian 22.5% (9) 5% (2)
Papuan 22.5% (9) 62.5% (25)
Derivations/Compounds 20% (8) 17.5% (7)
[common to Eastern Trans-Fly 15% (6)]
Austronesian 12.5% (5) 2.5% (1)
More than one possible origin 15% (6) 17.5% (7)
Unclassifiable 32.5% (13) 20% (8)

Status

[edit]

In the 2016 Australian census, 217 speakers were recorded,[1] up slightly on the previous (2011) census, which recorded 186.[2] It is considered an endangered language by UNESCO.[5]

There is a push to preserve the language in North Queensland. A group of Torres Strait Islander people in Mackay region, where there are only four fluent speakers left, are practising and teaching traditional hymns sung in Meriam Mir in an effort to help more people to learn the language and pass it down. It is hoped that a program to teach the hymns will be introduced into schools.[5]

Meriam Mìr and its neighbours

[edit]

Meriam has around 40 percent of its vocabulary in common with its unrelated Western Torres Strait neighbour Kala Lagaw Ya, which is an Australian language.[4] The shared words cover a wide range of semantic domains (body parts, kin, human classification, language, mythology, ceremony, artefacts, topography, natural elements, marine life, qualities, locations, directions and time), though not verbs. This latter strengthens arguments about genetic diversity, however there is still much to suggest mutual influence. The common vocabulary range from "exact cognates" to words that appear related, but have undergone semantic changes, as in the following selected from a list of 250 items (Mitchell 1995) (where exact "cognates" number 62 (24.8%), partial "cognates" 26 (10%) and "cognates" with semantic differentiation number 34 (13.7%), [122 "cognates" in total, 48.8%]):

Exact "cognates"
WCL MM meaning
dhangal(a) deger "dugong"
bal bar "across/crooked"
gamu gem "body"
riidh(a) lid "bone, leaf rib"
saamu sam "cassowary"
thawal(a) tawer "coast"
gabu geb "cold(ness)"
ùmai omái "dog"
ngœnakap(u) nerkep "heart"
naigay(i) naiger "north/north-east"
wathai watwet "dry"
partial "cognates"
WCL meaning MM meaning
dhang(a)
KLY dhaanga		 "edge, tooth" deg "edge, side"
wati "bad, evil" wìt "wrong doing"
mùdh(a)
KLY mùùdha		 "shelter, backyard, shaded place, haven" mùd "shade"
gœiga
stem gœigœyi-		 "sun, day" gerger "day"
wœibadh(a) "roe"
(badh(a) "food bed")		 wer "egg"
Baba, Baab(a) "Dad, Daddy" bab "father"
[wœra]kapu "one (only)"
(wara "one of a group, other")		 kepkep "few"
karùm(a) "goanna; clumsiness, mistake" karom "black skink; clumsiness, mistake"
ngœna "breath, intellect, memory" ner "breath"
kaimi;
kaimel, KKY kalmel		 "companionship, companion, co-";
"together, along with"		 kem "company; associative (case)"
semantic differentiation
WCL meaning MM meaning
thapi "thin piece of bark or wood, page" tep "fruit skin"
kapu "prong" kep "arrow"
maitha "belly" mait "chest"
susu "white sap" susu
sus		 "spray, foam"
"white sap"
uum(a)
awum(a)		 "death"
"mourning"		 eumi (singular)
baum (plural)
(stem -um)		 "die"
buudh(a) "white paint"
(for mourning)		 bud "mourning"
aap(a)
apa-		 "garden bed"

"down, below, under"

sep "earth, ground;
down, below, under"
KKY, KulY kom(a)
KKY, KulY kœman(a)
KLY, MY-KY kœman(a)		 "heat, burn"
"steam"
"heat, burn, steam"		 kemur "smoke"
(ur "fire")
bibir(i)
KLY biber(e)		 "strength, power" beber
beberbeber		 "weight"
"heavy, weighty"

There are also various items of semantic relationship, but not formal relationship, such as WCL puuy(i), MM lu "plant, tree; magic".

Mitchell and Piper (unpublished research notes) used the Holman et al. 40-word list below, which shows 9 (22.5%) exact items, 5 (12.5%) partial, and 3 (7.5%) semantically related words. However, this list was designed for use with Euro-Asian languages, and is perhaps somewhat inappropriate; for example, no horned animals exist, neither language has a verb ‘come’, and Holman et al. assume one form for 'we'; WCL has 4, and MM has 2.

PCD Proto Central-District Papuan Austronesian, PETrf Proto East Trans Fly; POC Proto Oceanic Austronesian; PP Proto Paman; PSEPap Proto South-East Papuan Austronesian [neighbouring languages noted : Papuan : Gizrra, Bine/Kunini, Wipi (Eastern Trans Fly Family), Kiwai (Trans-New Guinea Phylum), Idi, Agöb (Pahoturi family); Australian : Gudang, and the Northern Cape York Language, dialects : Wudhadhi, Atampaya, Angkamuthi, Yadhaykenu]

word MM Gizrra Bine Wipi PETrF Kiwai Idi/Agöb WCL Gudang Urradhi PP PSEPap
louse nem ngüóm, ngóm ngaamo, ngame, ngamwe ngüɨm *ŋamͻ nimo A. kabana aari
(unknown origin)		 aaku tick, louse aku tick, louse -- --
two neis nis neneni nœmog
cf. MM mog "piece"		 *ni-[isV] netewa,
Bamu teibo		 komblebe ùka- "two"
ùkasar(a) "two (only)"
(-sar(a) "small number")		 ilaabayu (cf. Y inychantu, At/A ilvan many) Y/A udhima, At udhyama/makyaana,
W aroma/adhoma		 *gujarra *drua
water (1) gur "salt water" -gul- "wash"
bapür- PlOb, apür VN		 atnana wash VN gony "washing"
imangena "swimming"		 *gulV "water, swim, wash" obo,
Kope oru'o wash self VN		 I. tetu "wash", A. bemine "sea water" wœr~wur~uur~wœir "water" G ungunya salt water -- -- *wair "water"
water (2)
(fresh; drink, juice)		 ni naiy, nai, nae niye, niiye ni, niya, nyɨ, ngi *niya/*nayi obo ni ngùki -- -- *ŋugu/*ŋugi --
ear
cf. hear		 laip, girip gublang, gublam tablamo yɨpiya, yɨpyar, yɨkɨpya, yɨrpya, irkɨpia ear;
yɨpiarom, yakrom outer early		 *?(+*raamo leaf) gare ear, sepate lobe, external ear ran ear, ika external ear, A. laandra kaura
kurusai- (in compounds)		 iwunya Y iwuny
At ikuchi
W iwui		 *gaalu --
death eud death;
eumi Sg, baum PL "die";
bud "mourning"		 büdül "dead",
budül- "die"		 budre death; (w)uje die budɨ "death";
(w)uj(e) "dead, death"		 *wudi "die" odio, P para, M uparu "dead";
orisiai, M/Kerewo oihiai "die"		 kududar "die" uum(a) "death, unconsciousness"
awum(a) "mourning, wailing" (for a death)
buudh(a) "white paint" (traditionally used for mourning)		 ithuurra/ithuulma "dead" Y/A yuthu, At ruthu,
W alghan "dead", W unga "mourn", U alga "death"		 -- --
I ka kó cane, kane kon *ka(nV) mai ngén, A. ngana ngayi G []yuba, aipaana Y/A/At ayu(va) *ŋayi --
liver o konkon (puringai) owolaamo,
uweraame		 wurom, vurom,
sukəp, tsɨkɨp		 *ͻwͻ
+*raamͻ "leaf"
*siba+kapu		 K/Kerewo beu, M beo
M siba "heart", D sibo "heart")		 A. yoa/siba/zebe siib(a) liver; centre iipa "heart" Y/A yipa, At lipa, W tepa, tipa *jiba --
eye ponì (unknown origin)
erkep		 ilküp, ilkóküp irecu yɨr, yer "eye", yɨrkɨp, ilkɨp, yɨrtyen, yɨttwin "eyeball" *iri "see", *kapu "seed, body part, fruit, etc." damari, Kerewo idomai kalye, A. yende "eye ",
ikép/ikapa "eye-ball" (kép "egg")		 pùrka (unknown origin)
daan(a) (also "pool", "life",
"kernel", "shell-food")
cf. -kap(u) "body part"		 daanha, rathair Y anngal, At ipanh, A angwaa, W yeithi/yithi -- *dano "lake, pool"
hand tag tang, tan arm, hand imo "hand, arm" yɨm *taaŋV, *iimo "hand, arm" K tu, Bamu tuu hand, arm tang, A. tranga geth(a)
(unknown origin)		 arta Y/At/A mata, W ara *mara *taŋa
hear asor- -rrkrru-, -rrkurru- -tecij- (-tecind-~cind-) hear,
ätecija VN hear/listen		 utkunj~utkund- *Vrkundi irovidiro, Mawata erebidiro, Kope orovidio VN A. dandarla karnge[mi]-, kœrngai VN;
kùrùsai- ear		 ? Y/A/At ami- -- *roŋor
tree
(also "plant", "wood", "magic")		 lu(g) "tree, plant, magic" nugup "tree" uli, uri "tree, plant" wul(a), ul "tree" *wuli, *[ln]ugu[p] "tree" ota "tree, plant", Kope nu'a "tree" lu, A. ra/rati-ra/ro puuy(i), OKY puuRi;
yuu "spit, skewer"		 puri "tree", yuuku "wood",
upiirri "medicine"		 Y/At/A yuku "wood, tree, stick, log",
Y/At/A upirri "sore, painful, witchcraft"		 *lugu "tree, wood" *pu[l]i magic
fish lar
(unknown origin)		 wapi, wapui kibu, cupya,
kopae, kopäi		 kabum;
waji		 -- arimina/irisina food, fish;
Kerewo na, Kope nai fish		 kwalba waapi
(unknown origin)		 waapi Y yatpan/yadpa,
A inhanyii, W nheya		 -- --
name nei ngi, ngui ngi ni, niœ, nyœ *nyilya paina, Kerewo paena ben, A. bena nel
Saibai variant nei		 yini At angyal, A anyii, W anyel -- --
stone bakìr
(unknown origin)		 inglkup, inglkurp kula, kura gli(muz), gɨmo, gɨmokɨp, kula, guma, nadi, motɨr *kula kura, M nora dadar, A. dader kùla uulpa Y/A aypany, At aypanh *gul(g)an --
tooth tìrìg
cf. ereg "eat"
deg "edge, side"		 zirgup (gup body part, fruit, etc. giricu;
cidi "edge"		 orkak
or- "eat", kak "bone"
dɨng "thorn"		 *daŋa "tooth, edge, etc." ibuanara, Parama iawa; K iawa "incisor" dhéndhég "bite INF"; A. ngui, nggoia, uguwoi "tooth"; A lenge, lenga "tooth" dhang(a)
(also "edge")		 ampu Y/A ampu, At ngampu *jaaŋa "tooth, edge, etc." --
breast
(cf. mother, milk)		 nano
ama, apu "mum, mother, aunty"
nanosus "milk" (sus "white sap", "foam")		 ngum, ngiam, ngüam;
aip mother		 ngaamo, nono;
mago "mother", yääye "Mum"		 ngom, ngum, ngiam, ngɨmb, ngɨmdor;
mog, ag "mother"		 *ŋaamͻ "breast, mother"
*maago mother
*susu "breast, milk"		 bodoro;
aida, M maramu, Bamu onoo, Kerewo mamo mother		 ngém/nono "breast";
nene "mother"		 ama "mum, mother, aunty"
aapu(wa) "mother, aunt"
susu (also "white sap"; "loaf"),
susuikai "milk" (ikai "juice, sap")		 []yuungu "breast, milk", athiinya "mother" Y/At/A ungunyu "mother, breast, milk"
A also awucha, yathu "milk",
W nono "mother, breast"		 *ŋam[u/a]ŋ "breast, mother"
*juju "breast, milk"		 *susu "breast, milk"
path gab kwat, kuat gaabo, raare nia, nga, nyau *gaabͻ gabo nyénggo yabu, KLY yaabu alka Y/A ulumu, At ulumu/anyaarra ? POC *tyapu
you Sg ma ma maane, maano man(a) *ma(nV) rai be (S/Du/Pl) KLY/KulY/KY ni
KKY/OKY ngi		 (an)tuuba/tuuba Y/At antu(va), A antu(ba), W endouva *ŋin/*nin *kau
fire ur uur ulikobo, uliobo, urikobe,
ulikobe, olobo, uli,
Kunini muye-uliobo		 uur, [wul(a)]para *uur[], *kͻbͻ, *pVrV "fire", *wuli "tree, wood" era, Bamu mahi yu mui (Boigu,KY also mœi) uma Y/At/A uma, W entovo *tuma --
tongue werut ulit wätä, wärtä, warta, wate welat, we(y)at, vlat, yat *wilͻtV watotorope, Kerewo mototobe A. dogmar, dangamai nœi
(unknown origin)		 unt[h]aar[r]a Y yalan, punhu, At lalan, A yalan -- --
skin gegur;
tep skin of fruit		 sopai, sopae;
kwan, kuan bark		 tääpo, tääpe, taape, tääpwo;
uli tääpo (etc.) bark		 gɨm (one dialect gunja);
wul gɨm, gɨm, yug bark		 *taapi tama thoe gœngáw(u),
KLY gœngaawu,
KulY gœngáy(u)		 ikwurra skin
ranga bark		 Y/At/A akuny skin, bark *Cagurr
night ki irrüb, irrub, irrib kiye, ciye sɨwɨny, sɨwɨn, sowɨny,
sɨrɨn, sowi, tsowony, sɨwɨng, sɨrɨng, sɨrɨm		 *kiya duo, Bamu duwo A. kuteine, kwete kubil
(derived, kùbi "charcoal")		 G yulpalga night, darkness Y yupul,
Y manara, At manma night, darkness,
W jagula		 -- --
leaf (lu)lam
(lu "plant")		 lam, lang (mainly compounds),
pórgae~prangai, prórngae, pórngae		 laamo, racme, raame (wulœ)rom
(wulœ "tree")		 *laamͻ "leaf" ota-pasa, M ota-pea
(ota tree)		 oro-popo/ru-pi/ro-rual
(oro/ru/ro tree, plant);
(lu)pi
(lu tree, plant)		 niis(a) itrara "leaf" Y/At/A yukum yampa (yuku "tree, wood"), A ithagha, W alway;
Y/At/A yampa "leaf, flower, lung";
AT yamparra, A inparra "lung"		 -- --
blood mam
(unknown origin)		 ói, óe uudi woi, woj, kus, ku *wodi arima,
Kope ora		 A. mem, mam, teia kùlka
(unknown origin)		 ichunya Y/A lukuny, At uchuny -- --
horn -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
person -am/-iam;
le		 -pam;
pam, pama		 -yame/-yamo;
binamo, biname, binam;
imä, im male,
rooriye, loori "man"		 -am, -iam;
rɨga "man, male"
leo "husband"		 *pyama;
*[rl]i[g]ͻ		 dubu, Kerewo meréha;
arubi,-rubi people, Kerewo oubi;
Kope dubuiro person, man;
M auana man, didiri men, mere male		 la "man" -ig(a) personal nominaliser)
mabaig(a) (derived, lit. "walker", maab(a) "walk"		 ama Y/At/A ama *bama --
knee (1) kolo -- (ngawengawe elbow) kumkak, yɨmkak elbow
(kak bone)		 *kͻlͻ "knee, elbow, corner" -- -- kulu
cf. kudu "elbow",
kœru "corner"		 yurtu elbow Y/At yutu, A yurtu elbow *yurru "elbow" *turu "knee, elbow"
knee (2) kokni
kok "leg joint+?"
wageb "kneecap"		 wagusingül, wagósingül, wagasingól koko/coco(rar/kaako)
(rare, kaako, kak, ror "bone")		 kɨ, kɨror, kum;
kumop knee ball,
(mop "end, head")		 *kͻkͻ "leg joint" popu knee, elbow D tubu, tang-kum;
putukupi kneecap;
A tran-kwimbe elbow		 kokan(i) "kneecap";
kuku inside part of knee, knee joint		 iingku knee Y/A/At wungku, W owen PP *wuŋgu[ ] "knee" --
one/other nerut "another"
wader "some, others" (unknown origin)
netat one		 darrpan, dórpan "one, one of group"
darrü "other" (+ -pan)		 yepä, neetera one;
nuuja other, another		 yepa one;
nɨnda other, others, some;
b’enga other, another (different)		 *ni+[rl]ͻtV other
*[yi/dVr]pͻnV, *ni+ta[tr]V "one"		 ata, Bamu kaiibi one, other, nau one A. tupulibi wara, war "one of group, other" (unknown origin)
dhurai "some, others"
wœrapùn, ùrapùn, ùrpùn
(older waraponi) "one only"
wara "one of group, other" + -pùn[i]		 ipiyamanha
inyaanha another		 Y/A ipima, Y also ipinyama, At nhipima;
W wema one, alone
Y unya, At unyinha, wanhu, A unyinha other, different
W emo other		 *nyupun, *NipiyamaNa --
nose pit "nose, beak,
point (of land)"		 syók keke, cece so, sok, sokak
(kak bone)		 ? wodi, Kope modi (cf. Bamu pito hole) A. murung, wede piti "nose"
(unknown origin; buna beak; nguur point)		 iyi nose, beak Y/A iyi, W enmoi, nundagel;
At umughanhu		 -- --
full (e)osmer (lit. "protrude, show self":
unknown origin)		 buku, iib puuwe ngor full(ness) ? Kerewo arara'ohuai -- 1) gùdapœlam(a)
(derived : "opening-SpecLOC+cause-VerbForm)
(2) KLY/KulY/MY-KY pùsakar(a),
cf. sakar "space"		 mur[r]ku gorged Y/At/A wampan full/swollen, W weithinyo full -- --
come (1) ta-, te-, ti-, t- to'-, tü- t- (s- allophone) t- irrealis;
ik-, -itk-, -etk- come, tu[i]- Pl, menamena, menon go, come VN		 *ta "come, approach" -ogu-, Kerewo -oho-, Kope -o'u- go, come -be- ngapa TR/INTR adverb,
cf. nga- 1st person, pa- telic, -pa dative
bœi INTR adverb,
cf. pœipai, KKY bœi "nearside"		 impiibinhu come, approach (-nhu DAT), ainpirra go Y/A/W ana, At ana/anma go, come -- --
come (2)
(imperative)		 taba
(ta-ba "come-INTR"),
maiem (?+ALL)		 -- tädi M, tocli F ayo -- -- abe Sg, yebe PL;
A yau		 aye, KKY aya imperative adverb
(Malay or similar loan : ayo, ayu)		 -- -- -- *mai "come"
star wer wimurr wale, walo, gugie, griga
(see sun, day)		 ikui, ɨki, ɨkwi, guje (one dialect bedam) *wa[rl]i gugi, M zogubo, Kope oroi'io A. piro, kwatai Wœœy(i), OKY WœœRi "Venus"
thithúy(i), KLY thithuuyi, OKY thithúRi;
zugub(a) constellation, significant star		 uunpi Y/At/A unpi, At wintamwintama (avoidance) -- *waRi sun
PSEPap*pituqon,
PCD *pitui, *pitiu, *pitiriu "star"
hill paser podo hill, dorro high ground podo, doro hill, doro mainland, shore podo, dor hill *pͻntͻ[r], *doro podo, Mawata also damera;
idodoro cliff		 I. duidui, A. pad paad(a)
(also "top, height, crest, peak ");
baudhar(a) mountain, peak		 pada Y yantal, At rantal, A yantaa;
W mara mountain		 *baanda "top" *pantar "hill, mountain"
bone, leaf rib lid kus kaako, kaake, caace bone;
raare bone, rare shell, spoon		 kak, kaak, kagɨ kak, kaga bone, stick, (hard) piece, stalk;
ror bone (in compounds)		 *riida/*raadi "bone, leaf rib" soro, M kako A. kwetr/kut riidh(a) athirra Y/At/A apudha, A avoidance ikyalitha, W watha/ua -- --
we inclusive mi, mer- inclusive mi mine men, mɨn *mi(ni) nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] ybi ngœba dual inclusive
ngalpa plural inclusive		 ? Y/At/A ali(va) DU, ana(va) PL *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive *kita
we exclusive ki, ker- exclusive ki kine, cine sɨn *ki(ni) nimo, Kerewo imo [exc and inc.] bi, A. ba ngalbai, KKY ngalbe, archaic KulY ngœibai, dual exclusive
ngœi, ngœlmù-, KKY/MY-KY ngœimù-, OKY ngœRi(mù-) plural exclusive		 aaku Y/A/At ampu(la) *ŋali inclusive; *ŋana(pula) (dual) exclusive *kami
drink (verb) iri -(a)nan- ene- -ona-~-ena- Sg, anain- NSg *ini/ani/ina Kope idio drink, odio he is drinking A. ine/ngi -ni-/-na- drink water
(-ni/na- eat)		 wani-
(unknown origin; derived?
< wanai- "put" active stem)		 ungkenka drink Y/At ungye, A ungya drink, eat;
W ical drink		 -- --
see, find dasmer, erdar
(stem er-)		 -sen- see -pän, pan- see, find,
ire see VN		 yɨr -ong- (ong bite),
yɨr -a- see, look,
yeri-, yiry-, oraka VN find, search,
ɨdar Sg, adar NSg find		 *ira see eáuri see VN -ndee- see iima- angkanya find W iangin find *kiima "see" --
new kerkar küsil, küsül, kósil new;
kari, karian little, small		 kirece, mamye, cireni, mamie~karte new;
matimati, matikäli, matikolä, matikola, matikari, geglo little, small		 sisel, sisɨl *kari[kari]/*kira[kira] oliómoto -- kayin(a) -- -- -- --
dog omai umai, umae, ume drenggo, drego, drengo yongg, yongk, yongga, yangg, yoorɨnk *omái Kerewo kaukau, Kope umu dréngg ùmai ingkud[h]iinya Y/At/A utagha *gudaga --
sun, day gerger "day, daylight"
lìm "sun"		 abüs, óbüs bimu, abeji, abweji, abuji;
gugie, griga "star"		 bibɨr day, lom, lomkongga, lemkogal, ganggal sun
(konga, kogal "woman")		 *limͻ/*lͻmi M iwio, Parama ivio, Kerewo hewio, Kope hivio sun;
sai day		 yébodh sun gœiga, gœygœyi-, gœigi-,
OKY gœRigaR(i)		 inga Y/At/A wunga, W unga, W mungbatho day *gari, *wuŋa --

Recent loans

[edit]

The main source of loan words to the language since the mid 1800s has been Yumplatòk (Torres Strait Creole) and English. There are also some minor loans from Lifu/Drehu, Polynesian (in particular Samoan and to a lesser extent Rotuman), Indonesian, Philippine, Japanese, and European origin. Many such outsiders were recruited – or in some rare cases black-birded – in the 19th century for pearl diving and other marine work, while others (from Lifu and Samoa) were missionaries with the British and Foreign Bible Society.[citation needed]

Dialects

[edit]

The language is currently dialectless. However, there was once a separate dialect spoken on Erub and Ugar islands, characterised in part by the retention of phonemic distinctions between 'ng', 'g', 'n' and 'r' where these have fallen together in two ways in Meriam Mir. The sound 'ng' in Modern Meriam has become 'n' at the beginning of words and 'g' within words; 'n' in many cases has become 'r' within words. Examples are remembered in one important Erub folktale (Lawrie 1970:283–284):

Erub : Aka nade ki andinane? Ge au?

Mer  : Aka nade ki ardirare? Ge au?

Where will we put it? There?

Erub : Mena inggandane/ingandane! Keniba uzen unken a keniba imut unken.

Mer  : Mena igardare! Keriba uzer urker a keriba imut urker.

Keep carrying it! Our paddles and our poling poles are still strong.

The earliest records (early 19th century) of Meriam Mìr included the phrase debelang good taste/nice, in present-day Meriam Mìr debe lag. This shows that the 'ng' > 'n'/'g' change is of fairly recent date; lang, now lag, is identical to the Gizrra lang of the same meaning.

Phonology

[edit]

Vowels

[edit]
Front Back
High i ⟨i⟩ u ⟨u⟩
Near-high ɪ ⟨ì⟩ ʊ ⟨ù⟩
Mid e, ɛ ⟨e⟩ o ⟨o⟩
Low a, ʌ ⟨a⟩ ɔ ⟨o⟩⟨ò⟩

The sounds represented by [a] and [ʌ] are allophonic. [ʌ] appears mainly in syllables before the stress accent and optionally in open unstressed syllables otherwise. [a] appears in stressed syllables and in unstressed closed syllables.

For some speakers the following pairs exhibit variation, and perhaps have unidentified allophonic variation: [e], [ɛ] and [ɪ] (mainly Erub/Ulag), [ɪ] and [i] (mainly Mer), [u] and [ʊ], [ʊ] and [o], and [o] and [ɔ]. Older speakers appear to keep the vowels more distinct.

Consonants

[edit]
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar
Stop Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d ɡ
Nasal m n
Fricative Voiceless s
Voiced z
Lateral l
Tap ɾ
Semivowel w j

/ɾ/ is heard as [ɹ] when occurring before or after consonants.

Stress

[edit]

Stress is contrastive in Meriam and can occur on the first or second syllable. Examples include tábo 'snake', tabó 'neck'.

Sign language

[edit]

The Torres Strait Islanders have signed forms of their languages,[6] though it is not clear from records that they are particularly well-developed compared to other Australian Aboriginal sign languages.[7]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Meriam language

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The Meriam language, also known as Meriam Mir, is a Papuan language traditionally spoken by the Meriam people on the eastern Torres Strait Islands of Mer (Murray Island), Erub (Darnley Island), and Ugar (Stephen Island) in Queensland, Australia. It is the sole Papuan language indigenous to Australian territory, distinct from the surrounding Australian Indigenous languages of the Torres Strait region. Classified within the Eastern Trans-Fly family of the proposed Trans-New Guinea phylum, it features agglutinative morphology and double-marking alignment, where verbs cross-reference arguments for person, number, and syntactic function. As of the , Meriam Mir has approximately 250 speakers, primarily older community members, with intergenerational transmission declining. The language is classified as endangered by and definitely endangered by , facing risks from the dominance of English and (Yumplatok). Revitalization efforts, including community-led programs and digital resources, aim to preserve its cultural significance, which is deeply tied to Meriam identity, oral traditions, and connection to the land and sea. Meriam Mir is written using the Latin alphabet and has been documented since the late through missionary and anthropological work, including and grammatical studies. Notable linguistic research highlights its unique phonological inventory, with contrasts in vowels and consonants not found in neighboring languages, and its role in expressing complex kinship and navigational concepts central to Torres Strait Islander life. Despite its small speaker base, the language continues to influence local arts, ceremonies, and the broader cultural landscape.

Overview and Classification

Geographic Distribution and Speakers

The Meriam language, also known as Meriam Mir, is primarily spoken by the Meriam people in the eastern of , with main speech communities on Mer (Murray Island), Erub (Darnley Island), and Ugar (Stephen Island). These islands form the core traditional territory where the language has been maintained through cultural practices and community interactions. Smaller numbers of speakers are found in mainland urban centers, particularly Cairns and Mackay in , where migration for employment and has led to dispersed communities. In these areas, Meriam speakers often participate in initiatives, such as school programs and cultural events, to sustain usage away from the islands. The recorded 217 speakers of Meriam Mir at home, reflecting a modest rise from 186 speakers in the , indicating relative stability in reported usage despite ongoing pressures. The 2021 Census data for shows 220 speakers, though no national figure is specified; overall numbers remain low, with estimates placing fluent speakers under 300. UNESCO classifies Meriam Mir as definitely endangered, where children no longer learn the language as a mother tongue and speaker numbers are limited (fewer than 500), contributing to its definitely endangered status amid broader linguistic shifts in the region. Demographic patterns show most proficient speakers are over 50 years old, while younger generations, particularly children, predominantly use English or (Yumplatok) in daily life, highlighting transmission challenges.

Linguistic Classification and Historical Documentation

The Meriam language, also known as Meriam Mir, is classified as a member of the Eastern Trans-Fly family within the broader . This family includes closely related languages such as Bine, Gizra, and Wipim, spoken primarily in the lowlands of southern . Meriam shows high to these sister languages, indicating a strong genetic relationship, while showing no connection to . Its position within the proposed Trans-New Guinea phylum remains debated: Stephen Wurm included the Eastern Trans-Fly group, encompassing Meriam, in the phylum's Trans-Fly stock in his 1975 classification, but later analyses by Malcolm Ross (2005) and R. M. W. Dixon (2002) questioned this affiliation, treating Meriam as potentially an isolate or outside the core Trans-New Guinea grouping due to insufficient pronominal and lexical evidence. Meriam holds a unique position as the only Papuan language spoken within Australian sovereign territory, on the eastern Torres Strait Islands. The earliest linguistic documentation of Meriam occurred during the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to the Torres Strait led by Alfred Cort Haddon in 1898, with significant contributions from linguist Sidney H. Ray, who collected data on grammar and vocabulary from Meriam speakers on Murray Island (Mer). Ray's foundational work culminated in his 1907 publication, Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Volume III: Linguistics, which included a sketch grammar of the Miriam language (as Meriam was then termed) and an extensive vocabulary list based on expedition fieldwork. Subsequent scholarship has built on Ray's efforts. Nick Piper's 2013 MA thesis, A Sketch Grammar of Meryam Mir, provides a comprehensive modern analysis of Meriam's , morphology, and syntax, drawing on fieldwork and archival materials to describe its agglutinative structure and verb complex. Additionally, Ray's Dictionary of Torres Strait Languages (2nd edition, 2003), edited and republished by Ron Edwards, expands on the original 1907 vocabulary with entries for Meriam alongside Western languages, serving as a key lexical resource. These works highlight the progression from early exploratory documentation to detailed structural studies, underscoring Meriam's distinct Papuan typology amid ongoing debates.

Varieties and Contact

Dialects

The Meriam language historically featured two main dialects: the Mer dialect, associated with the central islands of Mer (Murray Island), Waier, and Dauar, and the Erub dialect, spoken on the eastern islands of Erub (Darnley Island) and originally Ugar ( Island). The Ugar variety, once distinct as part of the Erub-Ugar dialect cluster, has since merged into the broader Erub dialect due to significant on Ugar, where the community now numbers only around 70 residents, leading to reduced linguistic isolation and increased interaction with Erub speakers. Phonological distinctions between the dialects were subtle, with the Erub dialect (including former Ugar forms) exhibiting vowel shifts such as the lowering of high front lax [ɪ] to mid front lax [ɛ], and frequent apocope of final vowels in trisyllabic words, for example, rendering "mōkepu" as "mokep." Lexical variations were minor, often tied to local environments or borrowings; for instance, the term "dam" refers generally to any seaweed in the Erub and Ugar varieties but specifically to green sea grass in the Mer dialect (brown seaweed is "meo"). These differences never resulted in mutual unintelligibility, allowing speakers across islands to communicate effectively. In contemporary usage, the Meriam language is largely dialectless among its remaining speakers, who are primarily concentrated on Mer Island, with the endangered status accelerating convergence toward a unified standard through community consolidation and intergenerational transmission efforts. Local idioms influenced by island-specific clans persist in informal speech but lack systematic structure, reflecting cultural rather than linguistic divergence.

Lexical Contact with Neighboring Languages

The Meriam language demonstrates substantial lexical overlap with Kala Lagaw Ya, the Western-Central language spoken on neighboring islands, sharing approximately 40% of basic vocabulary across semantic fields including terms, body parts, and environmental features. This extensive borrowing arises from extended historical contact rather than genetic affiliation, as Meriam is classified within the Eastern Trans-Fly of , while Kala Lagaw Ya belongs to the Pama-Nyungan family of Australian languages. These shared lexical items underscore the deep cultural exchanges driven by maritime trade, inter-island migration, and shared subsistence practices in the . Representative examples encompass terms for and implements, such as those denoting or fishing tools, which have diffused bidirectionally and reflect the region's interconnected economy. Meriam also exhibits minor lexical influences from other neighboring associated with the Fly , stemming from historical interactions involving regional mobility and exchange networks. Such borrowings are limited in scope compared to those from Kala Lagaw Ya and primarily involve practical vocabulary tied to cross-strait contacts. Importantly, contact-induced lexical similarities in Meriam must be differentiated from inherited cognates within the Trans-Fly family, where shared forms result from common ancestry rather than . Dialect leveling in Meriam has facilitated the uniform integration of these borrowed elements across its varieties.

Phonology and Orthography

Vowel and Consonant Systems

The Meriam language features a vowel system traditionally analyzed as having five phonemic vowels: high front /i/, mid front /e/, low central /a/, mid back /o/, and high back /u/. Some recent analyses propose additional distinctions or more phonemes (up to 8-10), reflecting debates in the on phonetic realizations influenced by stress and . Vowels may acquire a nasal quality before nasal consonants (e.g., /a/ realized as [ã] in nasal contexts), but is allophonic rather than phonemic. Length is not phonemic, though stressed vowels may exhibit allophonic lengthening.
PositionFrontCentralBack
Highiu
Mideo
Lowa
The consonant inventory comprises 13 phonemes: voiceless stops /p, t, k/; voiced stops /b, d, g/; nasals /m, n, ŋ/; fricative /s/; lateral /l/; rhotic /r/; and glides /w, j/. The system lacks affricates and has a limited fricative series, typical of many Papuan languages, with reliance on stops, nasals, and approximants for contrasts. Prenasalized sequences like [ᵐb, ⁿd, ᵑg] occur phonetically, particularly word-medially, but are not treated as distinct phonemes.
Manner/PlaceBilabialAlveolarPalatalVelar
Stop (voiceless)ptk
Stop (voiced)bdg
Fricatives
Nasalmnŋ
Laterall
Rhoticr
Glidewj
Allophonic variation includes the rhotic /r/, which is realized as a flap [ɾ] in intervocalic positions (e.g., ara [aɾa] ''), while it may be trilled elsewhere. These realizations enhance the language's articulatory efficiency without altering phonemic distinctions. Syllable structure in Meriam is strictly (C)V(C), with an obligatory onset in all syllables except potentially in initial position for vowel-initial words; codas are limited to single consonants, typically nasals, stops, or liquids, ensuring simple, open-preferring forms like ba (CV) or bak (CVC). This structure supports the language's agglutinative morphology while minimizing complex clusters. Dialectal variations may affect vowel quality slightly, such as centralization of /e/ toward [ɛ] in eastern varieties, but the core inventory remains consistent across speakers.

Stress and Prosody

In the Meriam language, word stress is contrastive and phonemic, serving to distinguish lexical meanings. It typically falls on the penultimate syllable but can vary to other positions, including the final syllable in certain dialects or forms. For example, in the eastern dialects spoken on Erub and Ugar, final vowels in three-syllable words often drop, causing stress to shift to the final syllable, as in mókepu 'cowrie shell' becoming mokép. This variability highlights the functional role of stress in Meriam phonology, where non-default placement is marked orthographically with an apostrophe or acute accent when not final. Prosodic effects in Meriam are closely tied to stress, influencing vowel quality and duration. Unstressed vowels, particularly /a/, undergo reduction to a schwa-like [ə], contributing to the language's rhythmic structure, while stressed vowels exhibit lengthening for emphasis. These effects are evident in dialectal variations, where vowel simplification and deletion further interact with stress placement, such as in the reduction seen in forms like pɪm to pɛm 'grasshopper'. Meriam lacks a lexical tone system, relying instead on stress for prominence. Intonation in Meriam follows typical patterns for declarative and sentences, with a falling contour in statements and a rising one in yes/no questions, aiding functions without lexical tone. The exhibits a stress-timed , where emphasis falls primarily on within phrases, creating a that aligns with the variable stress system and supports phrasal prosody. This reinforces the suprasegmental features, making stress a key element in both word-level and sentence-level organization.

Writing System

The Meriam language, known as Meriam Mir, employs a Latin-based orthography designed to be near-phonemic, facilitating literacy among its speakers in the Eastern Torres Strait Islands. This system utilizes the standard Latin alphabet supplemented by diacritics and digraphs to capture the language's distinct sounds, with early foundations laid by British linguist Sidney Ray's transcriptions in the early 20th century during his fieldwork in the region. The features eight vowels represented as a, e, i, ì, o, ò, u, ù, where the marks lower or more open vowel qualities, such as ò for the /ɔ/ and ì for a lowered /i/. include standard letters alongside digraphs like ng for the velar nasal /ŋ/ and rr for the alveolar trill /r/, aligning with conventions common in and Papuan-influenced writing systems. While the exact count of graphemes varies, the core alphabet encompasses approximately 20 letters when treating digraphs as functional units. Development of a practical accelerated in the late through community-led efforts, with the first major printed applications appearing in , including drafts of various passages and the full Gospel of Mark produced in the 1980s by missionary linguists and local collaborators. These materials marked an initial push toward consistency, though pre-1990s usage remained inconsistent due to varying transcriptions and limited standardization. The Regional Authority and its Languages Centre have since advanced orthographic guidelines as part of broader initiatives, including plans outlined in 2016 to establish formal processes for spelling and writing norms. In contemporary education, the orthography supports bilingual programs at Tagai State College across campuses, where Meriam Mir is integrated into immersion curricula to promote language maintenance and cultural transmission among younger generations. School materials and revitalization resources, such as dictionaries and songbooks, now employ this system to address ongoing challenges like dialectal variation and English dominance.

Grammar

Morphological Structure

The Meriam language, also known as Meryam Mir, features an agglutinating morphology characterized by the sequential addition of affixes, primarily suffixes, to express grammatical relations and categories on nouns and verbs. This structure allows for transparent morpheme boundaries, where each affix typically carries a single meaning or function. Nouns lack or classes and are inflected for case through suffixes attached to roots or stems, aligning with a split ergative-absolutive system that conditions marking based on tense-aspect or . The , marking transitive subjects, appears as -gu on first-person singular forms, as in adyu-gu 'I (ergative)'. Other cases include the dative, marked by -m, and locative allomorphs such as e, ge, and jdoge. Possession is indicated via inalienable suffixes on nouns, with -gu denoting 'my' for first-person singular, as in possessed forms of body parts or kin terms. Number marking on nouns is optional and irregular, using suffixes like -ey for dual and -ba for group/paucal, though verbs often carry the primary number load. Verbal morphology employs suffixes for tense, aspect, and agreement, with bound pronominal cross-referencing for subject and object arguments integrated into the complex. Tense-aspect examples include -ta for and -n for present, while the present imperfective uses -li, as in ka dígwat-li 'I am hauling in (1SG haul.PRES.IMPF)'. The future is marked by -e. Verbs also distinguish four number values—singular, dual, paucal, and —through stem alternations (e.g., ekwey 'stand up.SG/DU' vs. eko 'stand up.PC/PL') or affixes, obligatory for and higher animate arguments. The shows balanced prefixing and suffixing in inflectional morphology overall. Derivational processes include to indicate plurality, , or adjectival derivation, as in partial for intensive or distributive meanings (e.g., bada-bada 'many pigs' from bada 'pig'). combines roots to form novel lexical items, such as noun-verb compounds for complex concepts. These mechanisms expand the without heavy reliance on affixation. Pronouns occur in free forms for independent reference and bound forms as cross-referencing affixes on verbs, encoding , number, and role. Free forms include ka '1SG' and mári '2SG', while bound forms prefix or to verbs for agreement, distinguishing singular from nonsingular (dual/paucal/). This cross-referencing supports the agglutinative verb-final order by compacting argument information within words.

Syntactic Features

The Meriam language, also referred to as Meryam Mir, displays flexible clause-level , with common patterns including subject-verb-object (SVO), subject-object-verb (SOV), and agent-object-verb (AOV) in transitive constructions, alongside subject-verb (SV) for intransitives. This variation is pragmatically driven, allowing speakers to adjust for emphasis or focus, though AOV emerges as a frequent unmarked order in transitive clauses reflecting the language's ergative alignment. For instance, the transitive sentence koskir-ide u ikris-li follows AOV , where koskir-ide (agent, 'the man-ERG') acts on u (object, 'the fish') via the verb ikris-li ('catch-PAST'). Verb agreement in Meriam involves cross-referencing of core (agent A, subject S, object O) through prefixes and suffixes marking and number categories, including singular, dual, paucal, and . Prefixes primarily index the object or absolutive , such as d- for third-person singular O, while suffixes often denote the number of the agent or intransitive subject, exemplified by -daryey for dual. A representative intransitive example is da-ra-gem-le ('we.PL walked'), where da-ra- encodes first-person subject agreement and -le signals ; in transitives, this system aligns with ergative-absolutive patterns, treating S and O similarly for indexing. These morphological affixes integrate into to signal roles without relying on strict positional cues. Question formation relies on rising intonation for polar (yes/no) questions, with content questions initiated by interrogative pronouns like nete ('who') or na- as a clitic or particle for wh-elements. For example, Na- lug-lam? queries 'Why?', placing the interrogative at the clause onset. Relative clauses employ verb serialization, chaining verbs to embed descriptive sequences without dedicated relativizers, as in constructions linking a head noun to a series of predicated events. Negation is prefixed directly to the verb using forms like no-, ne-, or nole-, applying to the entire predicate without altering . Illustrative cases include nole ut-kak n(a)-a-li ('I am not sleepy'), where nole- negates the ut-kak ('sleepy'), and nole abi-tkak irdi ('He was not there'), negating the existential abi-tkak. Equative and identificational sentences omit a copula, juxtaposing noun phrases as in e bar-kak mir dike ('That is the right word') or Zomered pe irdi ('Zomered is there'), relying on context for predication.

Vocabulary

Core Lexicon

The core lexicon of Meriam, also known as Meriam Mìr, comprises native roots that encode the cultural, social, and environmental knowledge of the Eastern , with a particular emphasis on their island and marine surroundings. This vocabulary reflects the speakers' traditional , including terms for local , , and ecological interactions essential to subsistence and cultural practices. For instance, the lexicon includes specialized words for marine species such as teur (stripey fish, Lutjanus carponotatus), kar (blue tusk fish), tup (sardines), and nageg (trigger-fish), which demonstrate the language's depth in describing in the surrounding reefs and seas. Key semantic domains within the core lexicon encompass kinship and social relations, which are integral to clan-based organization and identity among Meriam speakers. Examples include bab for 'father', underscoring patrilineal ties and familial roles in community governance and ceremonies. The language also employs a robust grammatical number system across nouns, verbs, and pronouns, distinguishing singular, dual, paucal (for a small group, often humans or high animates), and plural forms to convey precise social groupings and interactions, as seen in verb stems like ekwey (stand up, singular/dual) versus eko (stand up, paucal/plural). Early documentation of the core appears in Sidney H. Ray's 1907 vocabulary list, which compiled foundational terms from fieldwork in the , providing a baseline for understanding native roots. Subsequent works, such as Nick Piper's 2013 sketch grammar, expand on this by integrating lexical examples within analyses of morphology and . Preservation efforts for the core focus on compiling dictionaries to safeguard terms diminishing in daily speech due to . The 1983 Meriam Mir dictionary project, conducted at the School of Australian Linguistics, involved elders in recording definitions on index cards using a near-phonemic , prioritizing semantic fields like marine ecology and to produce educational materials such as alphabet books and language games. More recent collaborations, including those between the Meriam community and the Regional Authority since 2020, continue this work by documenting cultural knowledge through community-led initiatives.

Recent Loanwords

The primary sources of recent loanwords in Meriam are (Yumplatok) and English, introduced through colonial administration, mission activities, and modern socioeconomic interactions since the mid-19th century. These borrowings often fill lexical gaps for concepts related to , technology, and daily life, with Yumplatok serving as an intermediary due to its widespread use in the region. For instance, the English word "" is adapted as skul, while "bike" becomes bik, illustrating direct incorporation into everyday speech. Phonological nativization is common in these loans to align with Meriam's sound system, such as the substitution of English /f/ with /p/, resulting in pis for "". Semantic shifts also occur, where borrowed terms extend to local contexts; for example, English-derived words for vehicles may refer to motorized canoes in contemporary usage. Loanwords from , which itself draws heavily from English (approximately 85% of its lexicon), further accelerate this process. Minor influences include Samoan, introduced via teachers from the Pacific Islands who worked in the from the 1870s onward. Similarly, historical trade contacts with Indonesian and Malay speakers have left traces in terms like kopi for "", adapted through regional creoles. Contact with the neighboring Kala Lagaw Ya language has also facilitated some shared borrowings in the eastern . These loanwords integrate into Meriam's agglutinative structure, where borrowed nouns can receive case suffixes such as the ergative -ka, as in bik-ka ("bike-ERG") to indicate the agent in a sentence. This morphological adaptation ensures seamless incorporation into the language's syntactic patterns.

Sign Language and Revitalization

Torres Strait Islander Sign Language

The Torres Strait Islander Sign Language (TSISL) serves as a manual signing system employed alongside the spoken Meriam language in Meriam-speaking communities of the Eastern Torres Strait Islands, particularly during hunting, ceremonies, and taboo contexts such as yam house rituals where verbal communication is restricted or prohibited. This signing system incorporates iconic signs depicting local flora and fauna; it operates not as a complete independent language but as a manual code that mirrors aspects of the spoken Meriam lexicon and grammar. TSISL emerged prior to European contact as an integral part of Torres Strait Islander cultural practices for silent communication, later experiencing influence from Australian Sign Language (Auslan) in the post-1900s era through interactions in urban and educational settings, while preserving a distinct lexicon tied to local traditions. Its use is now largely confined to older generations within these communities, showing a parallel decline to the spoken Meriam amid broader cultural shifts and .

Language Revitalization Efforts

The Traditional Languages Centre, established in the 2010s, plays a central role in coordinating efforts to retrieve, record, research, and revitalize Meriam , including community-specific initiatives on the eastern islands. Tagai State College implements bilingual programs that incorporate Meriam teaching from preschool levels across its campuses, such as those on Mer and Erub, to foster early alongside English. In 2023, the Torres Strait Traditional Languages Association was formed to promote and preserve regional languages, including Meriam Mir through its dedicated Kemer Kemer Meriam Language Cluster, supported by the Torres Strait Regional Authority and federal funding. A notable project is the 2024 Ilan Style Fellowship awarded to Jesse Lloyd, who is documenting traditional Meriam songs in collaboration with elder songwoman Margaret 'Nayama' Gabey, capturing lyrics, scores, and narratives for cultural preservation. These recordings are being digitally archived at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), ensuring long-term accessibility and contributing to broader language survival efforts. Revitalization methods emphasize community engagement and , such as workshops led by language teams to build proficiency and school curricula at Tagai State College that integrate Meriam hymns, stories, and vocabulary-building apps to make learning interactive for younger generations. Partnerships with organizations like the Pama Language Centre provide additional resources, including mapping and learner materials for Meriam , enhancing cross-regional support for documentation and teaching. Despite these initiatives, challenges persist, including low proficiency among youth due to historical and limited fluent speakers, with only around 200 documented in 2006, predominantly elders. Success is evident in increased enrollment in Meriam language classes at schools since , reflecting growing community commitment to revival. Efforts also briefly incorporate Islander Sign Language in cultural events to support multimodal preservation. In September 2025, the Regional Authority (TSRA) sponsored a record delegation of over 56 Torres Strait language advocates and educators to the PULiiMA 2025 National Indigenous Languages Conference. Presentations by community members, including those from Erub, highlighted grassroots Meriam Mir teaching and learning initiatives, such as the TSRA Ranger Language Immersion Project involving 16 fluent speakers across eight islands.

References

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  31. https://www.lotpublications.nl/Documents/141_fulltext.pdf
  32. http://newdoc.nccu.edu.tw/teasyllabus/113721209055/McGregor%20Chap%203%20pp%2068%20to%2079.pdf
  33. http://web.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/LFG/20/papers/lfg15jones.pdf
  34. https://wals.info/valuesets/51A-mer
  35. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_mer
  36. https://www.academia.edu/855978/Reappraising_the_effects_of_language_contact_in_the_Torres_Strait
  37. https://linguistlist.org/issues/24/1270/
  38. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/8dcfdb42-b8af-4167-b39c-0e4f12ff3a59/content
  39. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/meri1244
  40. https://www.indigenous.gov.au/news/meriam-community-and-tsra-collaborate-to-help-preserve-meriam-language-and-cultural-knowledge
  41. https://thelanguagecloset.com/2024/09/21/australias-only-papuan-language/
  42. https://www.mabonativetitle.com/info/meriamWords.htm
  43. https://journals.australian.museum/media/Uploads/Journals/18021/1464_complete.pdf
  44. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07268602.2021.2000365
  45. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-19/australian-indigenous-sign-languages/100185504
  46. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26190846
  47. https://digitalcollections.cdu.edu.au/nodes/view/4788
  48. https://yumi-sabe.aiatsis.gov.au/sites/default/files/outputs/2024-06/Indigenous%20sign%20languages%20a%20literature%20review.pdf
  49. https://www.academia.edu/93374175/Indigenous_Sign_Language_of_Far_North_Queensland
  50. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstreams/d67d9d18-fba9-458b-8e44-5c6b3ecceab6/download
  51. https://www.tstlanguages.org/
  52. https://www.qtu.asn.au/collections/queensland-teachers-journal/queensland-teachers-journal-vol-124-2019/queensland-teachers-journal-march-2019/revitalising-community-languages
  53. https://tagaisc.eq.edu.au/facilities/campuses/murray-island-mer-eruer-uteb
  54. https://www.tsra.gov.au/news/new-association-established-to-revitalise-languages-across-the-torres-strait/
  55. https://nit.com.au/07-08-2024/12960/preserving-torres-strait-cultural-heritage-through-song-jesse-lloyd-awarded-inaugural-ilan-style-fellowship
  56. https://ilanstyle.com.au/blogs/ilan-style-fellowship/meet-jessie-lloyd-the-2024-ilan-style-fellow
  57. https://www.tstlanguages.org/our-work/language-centre
  58. https://www.pamacentre.org.au/02-meriam-mir/
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