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Mesopause
Mesopause
Mesopause
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The mesopause is the point of minimum temperature at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions. Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide, the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 °C (-148 °F or 173 K).[1] The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km (53 mi), but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact there are two mesopauses - one at about 85 km and a stronger one at about 100 km (62 mi), with a layer of slightly warmer air between them.[2]

Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east–west flow, resulting in a small north–south circulation.[3]

In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2. Unlike the troposphere, where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up, increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission. This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2. Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study.[4] Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out.[5][6][7]

See also

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References

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Mesopause

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The mesopause is the atmospheric boundary demarcating the top of the from the base of the , defined as the altitude at which reaches its minimum between the stratopause and the lower thermosphere. This transition typically occurs at heights of 85 to 100 kilometers above , varying with , , and solar activity. It constitutes the coldest region in Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures often plummeting to around -90°C (-130°F) or lower near its upper extent, owing to and limited solar heating at such altitudes. The mesopause plays a critical role in upper atmospheric dynamics, serving as the locus for phenomena such as noctilucent clouds, which form from in the extreme cold, and the primary ablation zone for incoming meteors due to residual atmospheric density. Seasonal variations, including a higher and warmer mesopause during solstice periods influenced by gravity waves from lower atmospheric layers, underscore its sensitivity to global circulation patterns and distributions like atomic oxygen and . Observations from instruments such as lidars and satellites reveal a dual-structure in some regions, with secondary minima adding complexity to thermal profiles.

Definition and Location

Altitude and Seasonal Variations

The mesopause, defined as the altitude of minimum in the Earth's atmosphere, generally occurs between 80 and 105 km, with a typical range of 84 to 103 km depending on location and season. Observations from instruments like SABER on the TIMED mission indicate a bistable structure, where the summer mesopause descends to approximately 84 km while the winter mesopause ascends to 98–103 km. Seasonal variations in mesopause altitude are driven primarily by atmospheric dynamics, including the migration of the cold summer mesopause associated with upwelling in the summer hemisphere and radiative cooling. In mid-latitudes (e.g., 40°N), the height shifts from about 101 km in winter to 96 km in late summer, reflecting stronger cooling below 91 km during the warmer months. Globally, summer altitudes average around 88–90 km, rising to 100–102 km in winter, with hemispheric asymmetries such as a broader 4 km range in Southern Hemisphere winter compared to 1 km in Northern Hemisphere winter. At high latitudes, these variations are more pronounced, with the summer polar mesopause often 1–2 km lower than subtropical counterparts due to enhanced dynamical descent and . Long-term trends from 1990–2018 lidar data show slight lowering in summer heights (e.g., ~1 km cooler and lower in northern summer poles over recent decades), though seasonal cycles remain dominant. These patterns correlate with polar mesospheric cloud occurrences, which form near the lowered summer mesopause at altitudes of ~83–86 km.

Temperature Characteristics

The mesopause marks the temperature minimum in Earth's atmosphere, with values typically ranging from 180 to 190 at mid-s near 86–96 km altitude. Extremes as low as 130–140 occur in polar summer regions, where the minimum altitude can descend to around 86 km at 40° or 90 km at 80°S. These low temperatures result from by CO₂ and NO emissions combined with minimal solar heating at these altitudes. Seasonal variations are driven by the dynamics of the middle atmosphere circulation, with summer mesopause temperatures 20–50 K colder than winter values due to adiabatic cooling from air in the summer hemisphere, influenced by planetary waves and dissipation. For instance, at 40°N, the temperature minimum shifts to a lower altitude of approximately 96 km in late summer, enhancing the cooling below 91 km. In contrast, winter mesopause altitudes rise to near 101 km with warmer temperatures from descending air and adiabatic heating. Latitudinal differences amplify these patterns, with tropical mesopauses maintaining higher altitudes ( ~98 km) and warmer minima around 180 , while polar regions exhibit greater seasonal and colder summer values. Observations sometimes reveal a two-level mesopause structure, featuring distinct upper (~100 km) and lower (~86 km) minima that vary by and season, reflecting complex wave-mean flow interactions. Diurnal temperature fluctuations are minor compared to these larger-scale variations, typically on the order of a few .

Physical Properties

Atmospheric Composition

The mesopause region, spanning altitudes of approximately 85 to 100 km, features an atmospheric composition dominated by molecular nitrogen (N₂) at a volume mixing ratio (VMR) of about 78% and molecular oxygen (O₂) at 21%, reflecting the well-mixed state of the where turbulent maintains uniformity similar to lower atmospheric layers up to this boundary. (Ar) accounts for roughly 0.93% by volume, while other inert gases like and remain trace. This molecular dominance persists despite the onset of molecular above ~100 km, which begins to separate species by atomic mass in the overlying . Photodissociation by solar radiation, particularly wavelengths below 200 nm, dissociates O₂ into atomic oxygen (O), whose rises sharply from negligible levels below 80 km to a daytime peak of approximately 6 × 10¹¹ atoms cm⁻³ near 95 km, representing a transition toward O-dominated composition in the lower . Nighttime concentrations are lower due to recombination, but O remains a key reactive influencing local chemistry and energy balance. Atomic nitrogen (N) from N₂ dissociation is less abundant, constrained by higher dissociation energies. Trace gases include carbon dioxide (CO₂) at VMRs of ~380–400 ppmv, which decrease gradually above the mesopause owing to EUV photolysis and upwelling transport, though it plays a critical role in radiative cooling. Water vapor (H₂O) VMRs drop to 1–10 ppbv, sufficiently low to permit supersaturation and ice nucleation in polar summer conditions. Ozone (O₃) forms a secondary mesospheric layer peaking near 90 km at densities of ~10¹¹–10¹² molecules cm⁻³ but diminishes at the mesopause proper; nitric oxide (NO) and hydroxyl (OH) arise from ionospheric descent and H₂O oxidation, respectively, with variable concentrations tied to solar activity and dynamics. Ablation of incoming meteors injects metals like sodium (Na) and iron (Fe) at peak layers around 90 km, with densities up to 10⁴–10⁵ atoms cm⁻³, influencing minor ion chemistry.

Dynamics and Circulation Patterns

The dynamics of the mesopause region are dominated by wave-mean flow interactions, including gravity waves, atmospheric , and planetary waves, which drive the residual circulation and modulate zonal winds. The residual meridional circulation exhibits a strong seasonal , with over the summer pole and over the winter pole during solstices, primarily induced by the dissipation of upward-propagating gravity waves that deposit and force adiabatic cooling in the summer hemisphere. This pattern results in a cold summer mesopause temperature minimum, around 130-140 at approximately 86 km altitude in mid-latitudes, contrasting with warmer winter conditions exceeding 200 . Zonal wind patterns in the mesopause display pronounced seasonal reversals, with prevailing easterlies (up to 50-100 m/s) in the summer transitioning to in winter, influenced by drag and Coriolis effects that establish a summer-to-winter poleward flow aloft. Atmospheric , particularly diurnal and semidiurnal components, superimpose significant variability on these mean flows, with tidal amplitudes often exceeding mean circulation winds by factors of 2-5 and reaching peak speeds near 95 km. In the polar regions, these dynamics lead to mesopause wind jets, such as eastward jets in the summer mesopause exceeding 100 m/s, modulated by interactions with stratospheric sudden warmings that can reverse zonal flows equatorward. Interhemispheric differences arise from varying gravity wave sources and solar heating gradients, with the Southern Hemisphere exhibiting stronger summer upwelling due to enhanced topographic wave generation over , contributing to more pronounced mesopause cooling south of 60°S. Global circulation models like WACCM simulate these patterns accurately when incorporating realistic parameterizations, revealing that wave breaking not only drives the mean circulation but also couples the mesopause to lower atmospheric variability on timescales from days (tidal modulation) to years (quasi-biennial influences). This wave-driven regime underscores the mesopause's sensitivity to tropospheric forcing, where release and orographic effects perturb zonal flows, propagating upward to influence circulation strength.

Associated Phenomena

Noctilucent Clouds

Noctilucent clouds, also termed polar mesospheric clouds, form near the summer mesopause at altitudes of 80 to 86 kilometers, where they represent the highest layer of clouds in Earth's atmosphere. These clouds consist of submicron-sized water particles nucleated onto preexisting particles, such as meteoric , under conditions of supersaturated . Formation requires mesopause temperatures below 140 , which occur primarily during the polar summer due to of cooler air and reduced solar heating. Observed from ground stations or , noctilucent clouds exhibit wave-like structures, billows, or diffuse veils, with brightness peaking during twilight when they scatter from geometric heights where the sun's rays reach but the observer's location remains in darkness. They appear predominantly at latitudes above 50° N or S, with seasonal occurrence from late May to August in the and to in the . First documented sightings date to 1885 in , shortly after the 1883 eruption injected stratospheric aerosols that may have enhanced visibility, though their existence predates this event. As sensitive tracers of mesopause conditions, noctilucent clouds' frequency and brightness correlate with regional cooling trends and variability, with satellite data from missions like Aeronomy of Ice in the indicating increased occurrence rates since the late . Their persistence reflects radiative and dynamical processes at the mesopause, including adiabatic cooling from meridional circulation, and they occasionally descend to lower altitudes during anomalous cold events. water content remains low, typically under 100 grams per cubic kilometer, underscoring their tenuous nature despite vivid appearance.

Meteor Ablation and Entry

, consisting of s entering Earth's atmosphere at hyperbolic velocities typically ranging from 11 to 72 km/s, undergo significant deceleration and heating primarily in the due to collisions with atmospheric molecules. This interaction compresses the air ahead of the meteoroid, generating shock waves that raise temperatures to thousands of , initiating —the and mass loss of the meteoroid's surface material. Peak occurs around the mesopause altitudes of 80–100 km, where atmospheric density is sufficiently low (approximately 10^{-5} to 10^{-6} g/m³) to allow penetration but high enough to cause frictional heating without immediate fragmentation for most meteoroids larger than millimeters. The process follows classical models where mass loss rate is proportional to the cube of and inversely to the meteoroid's entry and material properties, with and radiation playing key roles in . For iron and stony meteoroids, yields vaporized atoms and ions, including metals like sodium and iron, which deposit in the mesopause region and form ionized trails detectable by . contributes minimally compared to thermal for meteoroids above ~1 mm, as the latter dominates due to and at surface temperatures exceeding 2000 K. Observations from meteor s confirm that the height of maximum correlates with mesopause variations, rising by up to 1–2 km per decade in some regions, reflecting atmospheric cooling trends. Entry dynamics at the mesopause are influenced by the region's low temperatures (around 180–200 ) and vertical winds, which minimally affect large meteoroids but can alter smaller ones' trajectories via drag forces scaling with . Fragmentation may occur if internal pressures exceed material strength, leading to cascading , though dense meteoroids often survive intact until lower altitudes. This process injects approximately 10–100 tons of extraterrestrial material daily into the mesopause, influencing local chemistry and formation without evidence of significant organic delivery due to dilution and oxidation.

Observation Methods

Ground-Based Lidar Techniques

Ground-based lidar techniques exploit the resonance fluorescence of meteoric metal atoms, such as sodium (Na), iron (Fe), and potassium (K), to profile temperature, winds, and densities in the mesopause region spanning 80–105 km altitude. These atoms form persistent layers from meteor ablation, enabling laser excitation at specific wavelengths—e.g., 589 nm for Na D2, 372 nm for Fe, and 769 nm for K—with detection of backscattered photons for high-resolution retrievals (vertical ~100–500 m, temporal ~1–10 min). Temperature is inferred from the of fluorescence lines, assuming with ambient air via collisions, while horizontal and vertical derive from centroid shifts in the . Resonance lidars predominate for metal-layer-limited altitudes (typically 75–100 km), with extending higher but at reduced precision above sparse scatterers. Iron lidars facilitate daytime operations due to Fe's higher abundance (~104 atoms/cm3 peak), unlike Na systems confined mostly to nights to suppress solar background. Scanning variants, such as Fe resonance lidars, beam-steer to map horizontal temperature gradients and shear-induced structures near the mesopause. Long-term datasets from sites like (Na/Fe) document cooling rates >2 /decade in nocturnal mesopause temperatures since 1990, alongside altitude descents ~0.3 km/decade. Doppler lidars at Arecibo (18.3°N) resolve nighttime profiles to ~0.5 precision, revealing tropical mesopause minima around 180–190 at 85–100 km. Recent Fe systems in (40°N) and Mohe (53.5°N) use 532 nm Nd:YAG pulses from 1064 nm seeds for layer mapping, showing seasonal Fe peaks at 85–95 km with abundances varying 10–50% annually. Multi-lidar networks, including new MLT-focused arrays, integrate Rayleigh, , and Doppler modes across latitudes for synoptic views of momentum flux and sporadic layers up to 110 km. These ground systems yield superior altitude resolution over satellites, though site-specific and weather-limited.

Satellite and Remote Sensing

The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite, launched on December 7, 2001, employs limb-scanning via its Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument to measure broadband emissions from species such as CO2, NO, and OH, enabling derivation of kinetic temperatures and densities from approximately 15 to 120 km altitude with vertical resolution of 1-2 km. SABER achieves near-global coverage through the satellite's 97° inclination and yaw maneuvers every 60 days, yielding daily profiles that capture mesopause thermal structure, including altitudes typically between 85 and 95 km where temperatures often fall below 190 K. SABER observations have documented seasonal mesopause height variations of up to 10 km and temperature amplitudes exceeding 20 , with a prominent double mesopause structure at high latitudes during summer, where a secondary cold layer forms near 100 km before descending to 85 km. The instrument's OH Meinel (ν=9-7) band emission at 8.3 μm, peaking within 5 km of the mesopause, facilitates studies of short-term variability linked to atmospheric waves and long-term trends, validated against ground-based lidars with biases under 5 in the 80-100 km range. Beyond TIMED, satellite of mesopause composition includes retrievals of sodium densities (peaking at 10^9-10^10 atoms/cm³ near 90 km) from Na D-line nightglow emissions observed by instruments like the Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS) on , with first global profiles reported in 2016 achieving uncertainties of 10-20%. Daytime distributions of atomic oxygen and odd-hydrogen species, critical for mesopause chemistry, are derived from solar occultation or limb-emission data using revised non-local models, as applied to SABER and similar datasets with retrieval errors below 15% above 80 km. These methods complement ground-based techniques by providing pole-to-pole, multi-year datasets essential for resolving diurnal and influences on mesopause dynamics.

Observed Cooling and Height Changes

Ground-based observations at midlatitudes, such as those conducted nocturnally at (41.7°N), from 1990 onward, reveal a cooling trend in absolute mesopause temperature exceeding 2 per decade, with after accounting for variations. These measurements also indicate a descending trend in mesopause height, particularly since , at rates of -470 ± 160 m/decade for the higher mesopause (around 100 km) and +150 ± 290 m/decade for the lower mesopause (around 86 km), though the latter is less consistent. Satellite remote sensing via the TIMED/SABER instrument, spanning 2002–2019, confirms a latitudinally variable cooling across the mesopause region, with trends from -0.002 to -0.113 K/year and a global mean of -0.069 ± 0.036 K/year, after isolating long-term signals from solar and quasi-biennial oscillations. Height analyses from similar datasets show trends, with summer polar mesopause heights decreasing by approximately 116 m/decade in low-frequency components. Seasonal distinctions emerge in the data: summer mesopause cooling rates average -2.4 ± 2.3 per at certain sites, contrasting with smaller winter trends, while lowering is more pronounced in dynamic summer conditions. Multi-study syntheses, incorporating , , and records up to 2022, support a broader mesospheric cooling consensus of 1–2 per , with contractions linked to contraction effects, though uncertainties persist from sparse polar data and instrumental drifts.

Causal Mechanisms Including CO2 Effects

The dominant causal mechanism driving long-term cooling in the region is enhanced by (CO2), which acts as an effective in the low-density upper due to infrequent molecular collisions. In this regime, CO2 molecules absorb thermal primarily from lower atmospheric layers but, with mean free paths exceeding local scales, predominantly re-emit photons to rather than transferring energy via collisions, resulting in a net radiative divergence and temperature decrease. This process is amplified by rising CO2 concentrations, which have increased from ~350 ppm in the late to over 420 ppm by 2023, with model simulations attributing ~70-80% of the secular cooling trend to this direct . Indirect dynamical feedbacks, such as CO2-induced stabilization of the middle atmosphere reducing vertical mixing and altering circulation, contribute comparably to the net cooling around the mesopause, with the indirect solar absorption effect dominating near the stratopause but persisting upward. (O3) trends provide a secondary influence, accounting for approximately one-third of the observed temperature decline through changes in absorption and associated heating, though CO2 remains the primary anthropogenic driver as validated by multi-decadal and datasets showing polar to equatorial cooling rates of 1-3 K per decade since 1990. This lowers mesopause temperatures, inducing an upward migration of the altitude of minimum temperature (typically 85-90 km) by 0.2-0.5 km per of cooling, as the thermal profile shifts to higher altitudes where balances reduced advective heat transport against intensified CO2 emission. Observational records from ground-based and satellite instruments, including SABER on TIMED, confirm this height increase of ~1-2 km over the past three decades, correlating strongly with CO2 volume mixing ratio gradients and consistent with hindcasts isolating effects from solar variability. Other trace gases like exert minor roles via heterogeneous chemistry, but empirical attribution studies emphasize CO2's outsized efficiency in the collision-sparse mesopause environment.

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