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Christian Palestinian Aramaic
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Christian Palestinian Aramaic
CPA in uncial script: underwriting of Matthew 26:72–27:2 in a palimpsest
RegionPalestine, Transjordan, Sinai
Eraca. 400–1200 AD
Afro-Asiatic
Early forms
Christian Palestinian Aramaic Alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3None (mis)
Glottologchri1239

Christian Palestinian Aramaic was a Western Aramaic dialect used by the Melkite Christian community, predominantly of Jewish descent,[1] in Palestine, Transjordan and Sinai[2] between the fifth and thirteenth centuries.[a] It is preserved in inscriptions, manuscripts (mostly palimpsests, less papyri[5] in the first period) and amulets. All the medieval Western Aramaic dialects are defined by religious community. CPA is closely related to its counterparts, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic (JPA) and Samaritan Aramaic (SA).[6][7][1] CPA shows a specific vocabulary that is often not paralleled in the adjacent Western Aramaic dialects.[6]

Name

[edit]

No primary source gives CPA a name as a distinct dialect or language; all such names are modern scholarly suggestions. Names like "Palestinian Syriac" and "Syro-Palestinian Aramaic" are based on the modified Esṭrangēlā script in which CPA texts are written.[7] Another cause for the association of CPA with Syriac is the fact that in later Rabbinic literature, the term "Syriac" was often used to describe Aramaic in general.[8] Egeria, in the account of her pilgrimage to Palestine at the end of the 4th century, refers to Syriac,[9] which was probably what is now Christian Palestinian Aramaic.[10]

The term syrica Hierosolymitana was introduced by Johann David Michaelis based on the appearance of the Arabic name of Jerusalem, al-Quds,[b] in the colophon of a Gospel lectionary of 1030 AD (today Vat. sir. 19).[12] It was also used in the first edition by Miniscalchi Erizzo.[13]

The terms "Christian Palestinian Aramaic" and "Melkite Aramaic"[c] refer to the Christian group in Palestine deploying this dialect for their written sources.

History

[edit]

CPA is preserved in inscriptions, manuscripts, mostly palimpsests in the early period, and amulets. The history of CPA writing can be divided into three periods: early (5th–7th/8th centuries), middle (8th–9th) and late (10th–13th). The existence of a middle period has only recently been suggested.[3]

Only inscriptions, fragmentary manuscripts and the underwriting of palimpsests survive from the early period. Of the inscriptions, only one can be dated with any precision. The fragments are both Biblical and Patristic. The oldest complete (non-fragmentary) manuscript dates to 1030.[14] All the complete manuscripts are liturgical in nature.[15][7]

CPA declined as a spoken language because of persecution and gradual Arabization following the early Muslim conquests. From the tenth century onwards it was mainly a liturgical language in the Melkite churches; the Melkite community mostly spoke Arabic.[1][7] Even as a written language, it went extinct around the fourteenth century and was only identified or rediscovered as a distinct variety of Aramaic in the nineteenth century.[16]

Corpus

[edit]
Deuteronomy 11:7–10 from the Lewis lectionary, 11th century (Westminster College, Cambridge)

The only surviving original texts in CPA are inscriptions in mosaics and rock caves (lavras),[17][18] magical silver amulets[19][20][21] and a single short magical booklet.[22] All other surviving manuscript compositions are translations of Greek originals.[23]

Many of the palimpsests come from Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula (e.g., the Codex Climaci Rescriptus),[24] but some also from Mar Saba (e.g., part of the Codex Sinaiticus Rescriptus),[24] the Cairo Genizah[d][24][25] and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.[26] They often transmit rare texts lost in the Greek transmission (e.g. the Transitus Mariae;[27][28][29] the hitherto unknown martyrdom of Patriklos of Caesarea, one of the eleven followers of Pamphilus of Caesarea;[29][30] and a missing quire of Codex Climaci Rescriptus[29][31][32]), or offer valuable readings for the textual criticism of the Septuagint.[33]

Inscriptions have been found in Palestine at ʿEn Suweinit,[34] near ʿAbūd,[35] at ʿUmm er-Rūs,[36] in the Church of Saint Anne in Jerusalem,[37] in the vicinity of Hippos at Uyun el-Umm[38] in Galilee, and at Khirbet Qastra near Haifa.[39] In the Transjordan, inscriptions have been found on Mount Nebo (ʿAyūn Mūsa), in the vicinity of Amman (Khayyān el-Mushrif)[17] and on tombstones in Khirbet es-Samra.[18]

The manuscripts include a short letter on papyrus from Khibert Mird[40] and at least one wooden board.[41] The parchment manuscript fragments are Biblical (mostly in the form of lectionaries), Patristic, theological (e.g. the catecheses by Cyril of Jerusalem and homilies by John Chrysostom), hagiographic (mostly martyrs' lives) or apocryphal (e.g., the Transitus Mariae). There are only three dated manuscripts, the Gospel lectionaries of 1030, 1104, and 1118.[14]

Features

[edit]

CPA can be distinguished from JPA and SA by the lack of direct influence from Hebrew and new Hebrew loanwords, its Hebrew loanwords being retained from an earlier symbiosis of Hebrew and Aramaic.[23] It is also distinguished by the presence of Greek syntax (by partial retention in translation).[1] Also, unlike JPA and SA, CPA is attested only in primary texts (mostly in palimpsests). There was no transmission of manuscripts after the language itself went out use as liturgical language. In comparison with its counterparts, therefore, the CPA corpus represents an older, more intact example of Western Aramaic from when the dialects were still living, spoken languages.

Editions of texts

[edit]

Manuscripts

[edit]
  • Jan P. N. Land, Anecdota Syriaca IV (Leiden, 1875), pp. 177–233 [Latin], pp. 103–224 [Syropalestinian], pls. I–VI.
  • James Rendall Harris, Biblical Fragments from Mount Sinai (Cambridge, 1890), pp. 65–68.
  • Paul de Lagarde, Evangeliarum Hierosolymitanum (Bibliothecae syriacae; Göttingen, 1892), pp. 257–402.
  • George H. Gwilliam, The Palestinian Version of the Holy Scriptures (Anecdota Oxoniensia, Semitic Series Vol. I Part V; Oxford, 1893).
  • George H. Gwilliam, Francis Crawford Burkitt, John F. Stenning, Biblical and Patristic Relics of the Palestinian Syriac Literature, (Anecdota Oxoniensia, Semitic Series Vol. I, Part IX; Oxford, 1896).
  • G. Margoliouth, The Liturgy of the Nile, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1896, pp. 677–727, pls. I–II.
  • Agnes S. Lewis and Margaret D. Gibson, The Palestinian Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels (London, 1899).
  • Agnes S. Lewis and Margaret D. Gibson, Palestinian Syriac Texts from Palimpsest Fragments in the Taylor-Schechter Collection (London, 1900).
  • Agnes S. Lewis and Margaret D. Gibson, An Appendix of Palestinian Syriac Texts (Studia Sinaitica XI; London, 1902), pp. XXVIII–XXIX, XLVII.
  • Friedrich Schulthess, Christlich-palästinische Fragmente, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 56, 1902, pp. 249–261.
  • Friedrich Schulthess, Christlich-palästinische Fragmente aus der Omajjaden-Moschee zu Damaskus (Berlin, 1905).
  • Pavel K. Kokowzoff, Nouveaux fragments syropalestiniens de la Bibliothèque Impériale Publique de Saint-Pétersbourg (St. Petersburg, 1906).
  • Hugo Duensing, Christlich-palästinisch-aramäische Texte und Fragmente (Göttingen, 1906).
  • Agnes S. Lewis, A Palestinian Syriac Lectionary: Containing Lessons from the Pentateuch, Job, Proverbs, Prophets, Acts, and Epistles (Cambridge, 1897).
  • Agnes S. Lewis, Supplement to a Palestinian Syriac Lectionary (Cambridge, 1907).
  • Agnes S. Lewis, Codex Climaci Rescriptus (Horae Semiticae VIII; Cambridge, 1909).
  • Agnes S. Lewis, The Forty Martyrs of the Sinai Desert and the Story of Eulogios (Horae Semiticae IX; Cambridge, 1912).
  • Matthew Black, Rituale Melchitarum. A Christian Palestinian Euchologion (Stuttgart, 1938).
  • Matthew Black, "A Palestinian Syriac Palimpsest Leaf of Acts XXI (14–26)," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 23, 1939, pp. 201–214, pls. 1–2.
  • N. Pigoulewski, "Fragments syro-palestiniens des Psaumes CXXIII–IV," Revue Bibilque 43 (1934), pp. 519–527, pl. XXX.
  • Hugo Duensing, Neue christlich-palästinische-aramäische Fragmente, NAWG, phil.-hist. Kl. 9 (Göttingen, 1944).
  • Matthew Black, A Christian Palestinian Syriac Horologion (Texts and Studies N.S. 1; Cambridge, 1954).
  • Hugo Duensing, Nachlese christlich-palästinisch aramäischer Fragmente, NAWG, phil.-hist. Kl. 5 (Göttingen, 1955).
  • Charles Perrot, "Un fragment christo-palestinien découvert à Khirbet Mird," Revue Biblique 70, 1963, pp. 506–555, pls. XVIII–XXIX.
  • Moshe Goshen-Gottstein with the Assistance by H. Shirun (ed.), The Bible in the Syropalestinian Version. Part I. Pentateuch and Prophets (Publications of the Hebrew University Bible Project Monograph Series; Jerusalem, 1973).
  • Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, The Christian Palestinian Aramaic Old Testament and Apocrypha (Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic I; Groningen, 1997). ISBN 90-5693-007-9
  • Maurice Baillet, "Un livret magique en christo-palestinien à l’Université de Louvain," Le Muséon 76, 1963, pp. 375–401.
  • Sebastian P. Brock, A Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Journal of Theological Studies N.S. 22, 1971, pp. 157–158.
  • Sebastian P. Brock, Catalogue of the New Finds (Athens, 1995).
  • Alain Desreumaux, Codex sinaiticus Zosimi rescriptus (Histoire du Texte Biblique 3; Lausanne, 1997). ISBN 2-9700088-3-1
  • Alain Desreumaux, "Une inscription araméenne melkite sous une peinture copte du musée du Louvre. Le texte araméen melkite," Oriens Christianus 86, 1996, pp. 82–97.
  • Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, The Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period. Gospels (Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic IIA; Groningen, 1998). ISBN 90-5693-018-4
  • Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, The Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period. Acts of the Apostles and Epistles (Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic IIB; Groningen, 1998). ISBN 90-5693-019-2
  • Sebastian P. Brock, Fragments of PS-John Chrysostom, Homily on the Prodigal Son, in Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Le Muséon 112, 1999, pp. 335–362.
  • Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, The Catechism of Cyril of Jerusalem in the Christian Palestinian Aramaic Version (A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic V; Groningen, 1999). ISBN 90-5693-030-3
  • Christa Müller-Kessler, Codex Sinaiticus Rescriptus. A Collection of Christian Palestinian Aramaic Manuscripts, Le Muséon 127, 2014, pp. 263–309.
  • Alin Suciu, "An Addition to Christian Palestinian Aramaic Literary Corpus: Logos XV of Abba Isaiah of Scetis," Journal of Semitic Studies 61, 2016, pp. 449–461.
  • Christa Müller-Kessler, "Three Early Witnesses of the «Dormition of Mary» in Christian Palestinian Aramaic: Palimpsests from the Cairo Genizah (Taylor-Schechter Collection) and the New Finds in St Catherine's Monastery," Apocrypha 29 (2018), pp. 69–95.
  • Laurent Capron, Deux fragments d’épittres pauliniennes (1 Thess. et 1 Cor.) en araméen christopalestinien, Semitica 61, 2019, 117–127.
  • Christa Müller-Kessler, "An Overlooked Christian Palestinian Aramaic Witness of the Dormition of Mary in Codex Climaci Rescriptus (CCR IV)," Collectanea Christiana Orientalia 16, 2019, pp. 81–98.
  • C. Müller-Kessler, "The Unknown Martyrdom of Patriklos of Caesarea in Christian Palestinian Aramaic from St Catherine's Monastery (Sinai, Arabic NF 66)," Analecta Bollandiana 137, 2019, pp. 63–71.

Inscriptions

[edit]
  • M. Halloun and R. Rubin, "Palestinian Syriac Inscription from ‘En Suweinit," Liber Annuus 31, 1981, pp. 291–298, pls. 59–62.

Notes

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References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Christian Palestinian Aramaic

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Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA), also known as Melkite Aramaic, Palestinian Syriac (considered misleading in modern scholarship), Syro-Palestinian Aramaic, Jerusalem Syriac, or in modern Hebrew as ארמית נוצרית (Arāmît Nôṣrît) and סורית ירושלמית (Sûrît Yerûšalĕmît), is a Western dialect employed by Chalcedonian Christian communities, particularly the population of Jewish descent, in Palestine and Transjordan from approximately the 5th to the 13th or . This vernacular form of Palestinian developed as a in the Byzantine period, serving primarily for the translation of Greek religious texts into a local tongue accessible to rural -speaking , distinct from the dominant Greek liturgical traditions of urban centers. It reflects the multilingual environment of late antique and early medieval Syria-Palestine, where it coexisted and interacted with Greek and, later, influences. The earliest attestations of CPA appear in short inscriptions and palimpsest manuscripts dating to the 5th–8th centuries, such as those in the Rescriptus, while complete surviving manuscripts—mostly liturgical works like Gospel lectionaries, euchologia, and horologia—emerge from the onward, including notable examples from 1030, 1104, and 1118 preserved at St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. Linguistically, CPA shares phonological and morphological traits with related dialects like and Samaritan Aramaic, featuring periphrastic verb constructions, lexical borrowings from Greek (e.g., in ecclesiastical terminology), and eventual substrate influences from , such as phonological shifts and loanwords, as Arabic became the dominant language following the Islamic conquests. CPA's corpus consists largely of biblical lectionaries, patristic translations (such as of Jerusalem's Catecheses), hagiographical texts (e.g., the Vita of Pachomios), and one known magical treatise, all adapted to the Jerusalem liturgical rite used by these communities. Its significance lies in illuminating the socio-linguistic dynamics of Christian Palestine during the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule, preserving a unique witness to Western Aramaic's evolution and the persistence of amid and . Modern scholarship has advanced through critical editions, notably by Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, and continues with recent publications as of 2025, including analyses of newly identified early Byzantine manuscripts, which have made the dialect's texts more accessible for comparative studies. The dialect fell out of use by the , supplanted by and other liturgical languages, but its manuscripts remain vital for understanding early Christian textual traditions in the region.

Name and Classification

Terminology

Christian Palestinian Aramaic lacks a known ancient self-designation, as speakers did not distinguish it from broader usage in their liturgical and inscriptional contexts. Modern terminology emerged in the 18th to 20th centuries following the rediscovery of manuscripts and inscriptions, with scholars adopting names that highlight its geographic, confessional, and script-based characteristics. Key terms include "Christian Palestinian Aramaic" (often abbreviated CPA), which emphasizes its use by Melkite Christians in the Levant and its distinction from Jewish and Samaritan Aramaic variants. This name reflects the confessional identity of the Melkite (Chalcedonian) Christians who employed it in the Levant, primarily for religious texts from the 5th to 13th centuries CE. Alternative designations such as "Melkite Aramaic", coined by Alain Desreumaux to emphasize its use by Melkite (Chalcedonian) Christians and to distinguish it clearly from Syriac, underscore the same ecclesiastical affiliation, linking it to the Byzantine-era Melkite tradition in the region. In contemporary Hebrew scholarship, the language is commonly designated ארמית נוצרית (Arāmît Nôṣrît; English pronunciation: Ah-rah-MEET Nohtz-REET), often extended as ארמית נוצרית ארץ ישראלית to specify its Palestinian regional context, and occasionally as סורית ירושלמית (Sûrît Yerûšalĕmît; English pronunciation: SOO-reet Yeh-roo-shah-leh-MEET), the latter paralleling the historical Latin term "Syrica Hierosolymitana" by emphasizing a Jerusalem association. Other historical terms include "Syrica Hierosolymitana," a Latin term meaning "Syriac of Jerusalem" introduced by Johann David Michaelis in the 18th century based on a Gospel manuscript containing the Arabic name for Jerusalem (al-Quds). "Palestinian Syriac" and "Syro-Palestinian Aramaic" derive from the modified Esṭrangēlā script used in its manuscripts, which adapted Syriac orthographic features while retaining Western Aramaic phonology; however, "Palestinian Syriac" is now considered misleading, as the dialect is not a true Syriac variety but a Western Aramaic form influenced by Greek and local substrates. The historical evolution of these terms began with Michaelis in the 18th century and continued in the 19th century, notably with Theodor Nöldeke in 1868, who is credited with felicitously promoting the term "Christian Palestinian Aramaic" to distinguish it from Eastern "Syriac" dialects. In the early 20th century, Friedrich Schulthess produced foundational works, including his 1903 Lexicon Syropalaestinum, which popularized "Syro-Palestinian" to denote the script's Syriac ties and Palestinian provenance; Schulthess's "Syro-Palestinian" reflects script influence, consistent with scholarly consensus. Subsequent works, including those by early 20th-century German scholar Hugo Duensing, who referred to the language as Christlich-Palästinisch-Aramäisch (Christian Palestinian Aramaic) in his seminal text-editing works and used it consistently, and later by Christa Müller-Kessler, a leading modern authority who often uses CPA but also contextualizes it within the Syro-Palestinian literary realm and has published extensive editions of the Codex Climaci Rescriptus, a famous palimpsest containing these texts, refined the nomenclature to "Christian Palestinian Aramaic" to better capture its non-Syriac linguistic profile and Christian specificity, a preference dominant in contemporary studies since the late 20th century. These evolutions prioritize accuracy over earlier script-centric labels, incorporating new epigraphic evidence from sites like Gaza and Mount Sinai. Terms like CPA also encode regional identities, extending beyond core Palestine to Transjordan (e.g., inscriptions near ) and Sinai (e.g., monastery texts), where communities adapted the dialect for local Christian practices. This nomenclature thus highlights the language's role in a networked landscape, distinguishing it from contemporaneous or Greek usages in the same areas.

Dialect Classification

Christian Palestinian Aramaic is classified as a Western Aramaic dialect within the broader language family, specifically belonging to the Palestinian branch of Late Aramaic. This positions it alongside other Palestinian varieties, such as and Samaritan Aramaic, which emerged during the Late Antique period in the region of Palestine and Transjordan. Unlike the Eastern Aramaic branch, which includes Syriac, Western Aramaic dialects like Christian Palestinian Aramaic exhibit shared innovations, including specific morphological forms such as third-person feminine plural endings in -ē or -ī, and agent nouns derived from patterns like /qāṭōl/. A key distinguishing feature of Christian Palestinian Aramaic is its relative lack of Hebrew substrate influence, in contrast to , which incorporates significant Hebrew lexical and syntactic elements due to its use in and targumim. Employed primarily by Chalcedonian () Christian communities, Christian Palestinian Aramaic developed in a context of Greek cultural dominance, resulting in borrowings from Greek rather than Hebrew, particularly in religious and administrative terminology. This sets it apart from the more Hebraized Jewish variant while sharing core grammatical structures with both Jewish Palestinian and Samaritan Aramaic. Despite its Western origins, Christian Palestinian Aramaic shows notable relations to Syriac, an Eastern Aramaic dialect, primarily through the adoption of a modified Syriac script for writing, which facilitated its use in liturgical manuscripts. This script influence reflects ecclesiastical ties between Palestinian Christians and Syriac-speaking communities, yet the dialect retains distinct Western phonological traits, such as the rendering of Proto-Semitic *p as /p/ (preserved unlike in some Arabic-influenced shifts) and vowel systems aligned with other Western varieties. These phonological characteristics underscore its Palestinian roots, even as Syriac elements appear in vocabulary related to . Christian Palestinian Aramaic lacks an code, primarily because it is regarded as a historical liturgical rather than a distinct vernacular with living speakers; its documentation is confined to religious texts from the 5th to 13th centuries, after which it transitioned to a purely ceremonial role amid the rise of . This status aligns it with other extinct varieties under broader macrolanguage codes like "arc" for , emphasizing its role in rather than everyday communication in later periods.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Period

Christian Palestinian Aramaic emerged in the as a distinct of Western , evolving from earlier regional substrates spoken in Palestine and Transjordan during the late antique period. This development was closely tied to the of Palestine following the reign of Emperor Constantine in the , when transitioned from a persecuted to an institutionalized religion, prompting the adaptation of local Aramaic vernaculars for purposes among rural and urban Christian populations. The originated in areas near in Transjordan before spreading to and surrounding regions, reflecting the linguistic continuity of Western traditions shared with Jewish Palestinian and variants. During its early period from the 5th to the 7th or 8th centuries, Christian Palestinian Aramaic was primarily employed in liturgical contexts by Melkite communities, who were Chalcedonian Christians aligned with the Byzantine Empire. These communities used the dialect for translations of Greek biblical and patristic texts, serving as a vernacular supplement to the dominant ecclesiastical Greek, which remained the official language of worship in urban centers like Jerusalem. This translational activity supported the liturgical needs of Melkite congregations in Palestine and Transjordan, preserving religious content in a form accessible to local Aramaic speakers amid the growing Christian population. The in 451 AD helped define the confessional identity of the communities that used Christian Palestinian Aramaic, as they affirmed the council's dyophysite in opposition to Monophysite Syriac traditions prevalent in other eastern Christian groups. This theological divide reinforced the dialect's role as a marker of within Byzantine-aligned communities. Early evidence of its use appears in inscriptions from the , such as those discovered at ʿEn Suweinit, indicating its initial application in and commemorative settings without extensive manuscript preservation from this formative phase.

Middle and Late Periods

During the middle period of the 8th and 9th centuries, Christian Palestinian Aramaic experienced heightened production of lectionaries and hagiographical texts, as Christian communities navigated the impacts of Arab conquests and emerging pressures that promoted as an administrative and cultural medium. This era marked a phase of institutional consolidation within monasteries, where the language served liturgical and devotional needs for Aramaic-speaking congregations amid shifting linguistic landscapes. Key hagiographical works, such as the Forty Martyrs of the Sinai Desert, Eulogios the Stone-Cutter, and , were transmitted in manuscripts like the late 9th-century Vat. sir. 623 from St. Catherine's Monastery, illustrating the genre's role in sustaining martyr veneration and communal identity. The late period, encompassing the 10th to 13th centuries, represented the zenith of Christian Palestinian Aramaic's manuscript tradition, evidenced by a peak in precisely dated codices that demonstrate sustained scribal vitality despite growing dominance. Prominent examples include three lectionaries: the 1030 AD Vat. Syr. 19, copied by of Abbud at the Monastery of the Abbot Moses (likely near ) and bequeathed to the in Kaukab, ; the 1104 AD Sinai Codex B; and the 1118 AD Sinai Codex C, both complete manuscripts from the community at St. Catherine's Monastery on . These works, organized for liturgical use with unique readings like the inclusion of John 7:53–8:11, underscore the language's adaptation for ecclesiastical purposes in monastic settings. Christian Palestinian Aramaic exhibited regional variations across Palestine proper, Transjordan, and the during these centuries, reflecting localized phonetic and lexical traits influenced by ongoing Byzantine-Arab cultural exchanges, such as substrate effects on consonants (e.g., /p/ shifting to ). Manuscripts from Palestinian sites like Kaukab show ties to rural Chalcedonian networks, while those from Sinai and Transjordanian monasteries reveal adaptations for diverse pilgrim and monastic audiences under mixed Hellenistic and Islamic rule. This period also highlighted the language's peak as a scribal medium, particularly in preserving Greek patristic through translations of works by authors like , which were rendered to maintain doctrinal continuity in non-Greek-speaking communities.

Decline and Extinction

The process of decline for Christian Palestinian Aramaic was primarily driven by the Arab conquests of the CE, which initiated widespread across Palestine and Transjordan, leading to the gradual replacement of Aramaic by as the dominant vernacular and administrative language among Christian communities. This linguistic shift was accelerated by the integration of into daily life, education, and governance under Umayyad and Abbasid rule, where Aramaic-speaking Christians increasingly adopted for practical purposes while retaining Aramaic for liturgical texts. By the mid-9th century, had become the primary in the , eroding the dialect's role even in religious contexts. The 11th–13th centuries marked a terminal phase, with the Crusades introducing temporary Latin and Greek influences in urban centers but ultimately hastening the dialect's marginalization as Arabic solidified its position amid political instability and reconquests. Under Ayyubid and early Mamluk rule following the fall of the Crusader states in 1291 CE, the emphasis on Arabic in administration, scholarship, and even some Christian liturgies further supplanted Christian Palestinian Aramaic, while Syriac emerged as a preferred ecclesiastical alternative in broader Melkite usage. The last dated manuscripts, primarily lectionaries and liturgical fragments, appear around 1300 CE, such as a 13th-century Evangeliary from St. Catherine's Monastery, after which the dialect ceased to be used as a written medium by the 14th century. The obsolescence of Christian Palestinian Aramaic as both a written and spoken language was thus complete by the late medieval period, reflecting broader patterns of linguistic assimilation in the Islamic world. Its rediscovery occurred in the through European scholars' examination of manuscripts in the and Vatican collections, which preserved the surviving corpus and enabled modern philological study.

Linguistic Features

Phonology

Christian Palestinian Aramaic, as a Western Aramaic dialect, retains the characteristic spirantization rules affecting the bgdkpt consonants (b, g, d, k, p, t), whereby these stops are realized as fricatives following vowels, including the shift of /p/ to /f/ in post-vocalic positions, such as in forms like *kap > kaf 'palm'. Pharyngeals are weakened or lost in some contexts, as seen in examples like ṣibād < *ṣibḥad 'a few', where the pharyngeal ḥ is elided. The vowel system of Christian Palestinian Aramaic shows evolution from Proto-Aramaic, with triphthongs contracting into diphthongs or long s, for instance *aw developing into ō, as evidenced in uled < *oled < *awled 'he was born'. Short vowels undergo reduction, including the loss of , resulting in forms like azḇen < *zəḇen 'ear' and kitāḇā < *kətāḇā 'book'. Influences on the vowel system are minimal from Hebrew but more pronounced from Greek, particularly through loanwords in liturgical texts that introduce new vowel patterns. Orthographic representations employ the Esṭrangēlā script, a rounded variant of the , with matres lectionis (yod and waw) used to indicate vowels, such as final -ā rendered by he or , facilitating the partial vocalization of consonants in manuscripts from the 5th to 13th centuries.

Morphology and Syntax

Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) nominal morphology preserves a case system typical of Western Aramaic dialects, as classified by Fitzmyer (1979), with three cases—nominative, genitive, and accusative—distinguished in early texts through vowel endings such as -ā for nominative and accusative in masculine singular forms, and -ay for genitive. This tripartite system simplifies in later stages to a binary distinction, often merging accusative and nominative while retaining genitive markers for possession and prepositional objects. The definite article is expressed via the emphatic state, realized as a postpositive suffix -ā on masculine singular nouns (e.g., malk-ā 'the king'), which functions to mark definiteness without a separate prefixed element. The verbal system in CPA follows the standard Semitic pattern with three primary stems: Peal (simple/active, e.g., qṭal 'he killed'), Pael (intensive, e.g., qaṭṭel 'he teach'), and Hafel (, e.g., haqṭîl 'he caused to kill'). Weak verb paradigms show adaptations for with geminates or weak radicals; for instance, geminate verbs like qṭṭ ('to kill repeatedly') yield forms such as the perfect qaṭṭel in the Pael stem, where the doubled radical is preserved with vowel adjustments to avoid assimilation. These stems conjugate for person, gender, number, and tense/aspect, with the perfect and as core forms. Syntactically, CPA predominantly employs subject-verb-object (SVO) , reflecting Greek influence from source texts in translations. Periphrastic constructions are common for expressing tenses, such as the present progressive formed by the plus a copula (e.g., qōṭel hu 'he is killing'). Relative clauses are introduced by the particle d-, which agrees in and number with the antecedent (e.g., baytā d-malkā 'the house of the king'). In liturgical texts like the CPA version, is frequently rendered using the passive stems (e.g., Peal passive qṭil) or periphrastic equivalents to mirror Greek passives, as in translations of phrases like 'the disciple was sent' (talmîdā eṯpqaḥ).

Lexicon and Influences

The lexicon of Christian Palestinian Aramaic is primarily rooted in the proto-Western Aramaic vernacular spoken in the region during , preserving core vocabulary shared with other Palestinian Aramaic dialects such as terms for everyday objects and basic actions. This foundation includes religious terminology adapted from earlier Aramaic traditions, such as qaddīšā, denoting "" or "," which appears frequently in liturgical and hagiographical contexts to describe sacred figures and places. Unlike , which exhibits notable Hebrew influences in its vocabulary, Christian Palestinian Aramaic shows minimal direct borrowing from Hebrew, reflecting the distinct cultural and confessional environment of its Christian users. Greek loanwords form a dominant component of the lexicon, particularly in religious and administrative domains, due to the dialect's extensive use in translating Greek biblical, patristic, and liturgical texts. Examples include ʿeklesyā (from Greek ekklēsía, meaning "church"), nysws (from nē̂sos, "island"), and ʾgps (from agápē, referring to "agape meals" in communal worship). These borrowings constitute a substantial proportion of the vocabulary in preserved texts, especially lectionaries and hagiographies, where they integrate seamlessly to convey Christian theological concepts. Additionally, calques—literal translations of Greek phrases from patristic writings—enrich the ecclesiastical lexicon, such as compound expressions mirroring Greek syntactic structures for terms related to doctrine and ritual. In later periods, following the Arab conquest of the seventh century, Arabic influences emerge more prominently, particularly in administrative and everyday terms, as Christian communities adapted to the new linguistic environment. Loanwords like bdl ("change," from Arabic badala), gryn ("chattering," from ǧarā), and yqn ("make certain," from yaqina) reflect this contact, often appearing in post-eighth-century manuscripts alongside phonological shifts such as the rendering of Aramaic /p/ as in words like ʾb lmw ("Psalm"). These Arabic elements are less pervasive than Greek borrowings but mark the dialect's evolution amid multilingualism in Byzantine and early Islamic Palestine. Semantic domains in Christian Palestinian Aramaic emphasize vocabulary, tailored to the needs of and lectionaries, where terms for church hierarchy (e.g., b ryrk "" from Greek, m rʾbwlyʾ "metropolitan") and ritual practices dominate. This focus underscores the dialect's role as a vehicle for and , with Greek-derived words and calques facilitating the transmission of patristic ideas into the local context.

Extant Corpus

Manuscripts

The primary manuscript sources of Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA), alternatively termed Melkite Aramaic manuscripts by Alain Desreumaux (1997), consist predominantly of palimpsests, where earlier texts were scraped or washed off to reuse for later writings, often in Syriac or . These manuscripts, dating from the 5th to 13th centuries, were produced in monastic scriptoria in Palestine, Sinai, and , reflecting the liturgical and scriptural needs of Christian communities. The majority survive as fragments due to recycling practices, but they provide crucial evidence for early CPA biblical translations and hagiographic literature. Key collections include the Sinai palimpsests from St. Catherine's Monastery, which encompass over a dozen CPA undertexts from the 6th to 8th centuries, such as those in the Codex Climaci Rescriptus (CCR). The CCR, a 10th-century Syriac , contains recycled folios from upward of nine earlier codices, including CPA portions of the (CCR II) and the with (CCR XI), dating to the 6th or . In the , notable examples include Vat. sir. 623 (part 2), an 886 CE palimpsest with CPA fragments from the , and Vat. sir. 19, a lectionary from around 1030 CE, the oldest complete non-fragmentary CPA manuscript. The Ambrosian Library in Milan holds related Syriac palimpsests with potential CPA underlayers, such as A 150 sup., from the 10th to 12th centuries, though fewer are directly attributed to CPA. CPA manuscripts primarily feature Gospel lectionaries for liturgical use, biblical translations from Greek Vorlagen (such as the Old and New Testaments in CCR), and hagiographic texts like the martyrdom of Patriklos of Caesarea, preserved in the 6th- or 7th-century undertext of Sinai Arabic NF 66. These contents highlight CPA's role in Chalcedonian worship, with lectionaries often following the Jerusalem rite and including unique pericopes not attested elsewhere. The oldest complete manuscript, Vat. sir. 19, is a lectionary with a colophon detailing its production in a Palestinian community. Physically, these manuscripts are codices on , typically measuring around 167 x 123 mm, with the CPA undertexts written in a modified Esṭrangēlā script—a rounded, early Syriac form adapted for the , featuring distinct letter shapes for sounds like /p/ and /t/. Many exhibit bilingual formats, with Greek parallels or rubrics alongside , and show evidence of careful preparation, such as ruled pages with 13 to 28 lines. Palimpsests often layer CPA beneath Syriac overtexts in the same Esṭrangēlā script, complicating recovery without advanced techniques. Recent discoveries stem from the Sinai Palimpsests Project (2011–2016), which used to reveal erased CPA undertexts across 74 palimpsests, expanding the known corpus by approximately 30% and uncovering previously unknown texts like additional biblical fragments and hagiographies. Subsequent studies, including 2023 identifications from Cairo Genizah palimpsests and a 2025 edition of CCR II & XI (Phillips), have further expanded and refined the corpus. This non-invasive method, involving and scans, has digitized over 6,800 pages, enabling fresh editions of materials like the CCR and Sinai Arabic NF 66, significantly advancing CPA philology.

Inscriptions

The epigraphic evidence for Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) comprises a small corpus of short inscriptions, with around 20–30 documented examples, dating primarily from the 5th to the 11th centuries CE, originating in settings across Palestine and Transjordan. These texts are predominantly fragmentary, offering valuable but limited glimpses into the vernacular usage of CPA through onomastic data, such as personal names, and standardized formulaic phrases like prayers or commemorative invocations. Unlike the more extensive manuscript tradition, these inscriptions reflect non-literary, site-specific applications of the dialect within Melkite Christian communities. Key discoveries include the 6th-century baptismal inscription from ʿEn Suweinit in Palestine, a stone text associated with a church that invokes blessings in CPA, dated through its archaeological context within a Byzantine . In Transjordan, notable examples come from sites like the Kayanos Church at ʿUyun Mūsā near , where an early 6th-century stone funerary inscription commemorates a named GY'N, emphasizing remembrance of benefactors. Additional finds from the region, such as a dedicatory inscription at ʿUyun Umm el-ʿAzam West dedicated by , highlight local patronage and liturgical dedications. Crosses bearing CPA inscriptions from Gaza and Transjordan, spanning the 5th to 7th centuries, often feature protective or invocatory formulas, underscoring the dialect's role in apotropaic and devotional contexts. The inscriptions encompass funerary epitaphs recording deaths and memorials, dedicatory texts marking church constructions or donations, and magical incantations for protection, alongside brief prayers or names etched as personal devotions. Materials typically include stone slabs and pavements, with the script employing Estrangela forms or regional variants adapted for epigraphic use, sometimes alongside Greek or crosses for bilingual or symbolic emphasis. Dating relies heavily on associated archaeological strata, such as Byzantine church layers, though precise chronologies remain tentative due to reuse and erosion. Interpretive challenges arise from the texts' brevity and fragmentation, compounded by orthographic inconsistencies and the dialect's transitional features between Western Aramaic and emerging influences, which complicate paleographic analysis and linguistic attribution. Each inscription often adopts a unique phrasing, reflecting oral liturgical traditions akin to those preserved in manuscripts, yet their localized nature limits broader syntactical insights.

Other Artifacts

Christian Palestinian Aramaic is attested in a small number of portable artifacts beyond formal manuscripts and monumental inscriptions, primarily amulets and informal writings that reflect everyday, devotional, and magical practices among Christian communities. These items, often inscribed on lead, , or wood, provide glimpses into the use of the in protective and personal contexts from the 6th to 8th centuries CE. Amulets and charms constitute the most prominent category of such artifacts, featuring incantations and invocations for protection against evil forces or illness. A notable example is a newly discovered amulet from the Judean Desert, dating to the 6th–8th century CE, inscribed with approximately 20 lines of incomplete text invoking personal names like "" alongside magical formulas. This lead or similar material item exhibits linguistic traits such as the weakening of gutturals and orthographic variations, distinguishing it from more standardized liturgical texts. Another key specimen is a magical booklet preserved at the University of Louvain, comprising a short, original non-translated text focused on incantations, likely on , which stands out for its unique blend of Christian devotion and apotropaic elements. Ostraca and offer additional evidence of informal CPA usage, particularly in monastic environments where brief notes or devotional scratches capture spontaneous expressions. An from Edfou in , circa 600 CE and housed in the Museum (AF 12322), contains underwritten CPA text beneath a Coptic overtext, revealing practical or devotional content in a bilingual setting. from monastic and church sites, such as a Greek-Aramaic inscription at Horvat Qastra, further illustrate scribbles, often prayers or names, etched in accessible spaces to invoke divine aid. The total number of these artifacts remains limited, with fewer than 50 known items surviving, many in fragmented or poorly preserved states due to their perishable materials and exposure to environmental degradation. A significant portion are bilingual, incorporating Greek for liturgical phrases or Arabic influences in later examples, reflecting the multilingual milieu of late antique Palestine and Transjordan. These artifacts hold particular significance for reconstructing the spoken forms of CPA and patterns of popular devotion, as their informal nature preserves colloquial elements absent from polished manuscripts, thus bridging gaps in the formal literary corpus and illuminating magical traditions within Christian communities.

Editions and Scholarship

Historical Editions

Early editions often placed Christian Palestinian Aramaic texts within Syriac scholarly contexts, with alternative designations such as 'Syriac of Jerusalem' (Michaelis). Also associated with Melkite Christians per Burkitt. One of the earliest scholarly efforts to edit Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) texts was undertaken by Jan Pieter Nicolaas Land in his 1875 publication Anecdota Syriaca, Volume 4 (Otia Syriaca), which presented unpublished Syriac materials including lectionaries and fragments in CPA script from various manuscripts. Land's edition focused on texts from European collections, providing transcriptions and Latin translations that highlighted the dialect's distinct and , though his work primarily served as a catalog of anecdotally preserved items rather than a systematic corpus. This volume laid foundational groundwork by making CPA visible to Western scholars, emphasizing its role in early . Subsequent editions advanced access to CPA through explorations of monastic libraries, notably the Studia Sinaitica series edited by Agnes Smith Lewis and Margaret Dunlop Gibson. Their 1899 work, A Palestinian Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels, re-edited Gospel lectionaries from Sinai manuscripts, incorporating comparisons with earlier Vatican codices to reconstruct liturgical readings in CPA. Lewis and Gibson's methodology involved diplomatic transcriptions and glossaries, revealing dialectal variations in biblical phrasing and rubrics tied to Jerusalem rite practices. This series, drawing from British Museum holdings and Sinai expeditions, significantly expanded the known corpus of CPA lectionary texts. In the early 20th century, Rubens Duval contributed to the documentation of CPA inscriptions in his 1901 study, which transcribed and analyzed epigraphic evidence from Palestinian sites, shedding light on the dialect's use in funerary and dedicatory contexts. Complementing this, Paul Anton de Lagarde's earlier biblical editions, particularly the 1861 Evangeliarium Hierosolymitanum, provided critical transcriptions of CPA Gospel versions from lectionaries, influencing subsequent collations despite its focus on a single manuscript tradition. De Lagarde's approach prioritized textual variants against Greek and Syriac parallels, establishing benchmarks for understanding CPA's translational characteristics in scriptural contexts. These historical editions, while groundbreaking, suffered from notable limitations, including incomplete collations that overlooked variant readings across dispersed manuscripts and reliance on low-quality facsimiles prone to transcription errors. Pre-digital access restricted verification of originals, often held in remote libraries like Sinai or the Vatican, leading to interpretive inaccuracies in and morphology; for instance, early prints struggled with CPA's unique vowel pointing, resulting in inconsistent representations. Moreover, the absence of comprehensive photographic reproductions exacerbated challenges in paleographic analysis, prompting later scholars to revisit these works for corrections.

Modern Studies and Publications

Contemporary scholarship on Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) has advanced significantly through critical editions that build on earlier fragmentary publications, providing more comprehensive access to the textual corpus. A landmark contribution is the two-volume edition of the CPA by Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff, published in 1997 and 1999 as part of A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic. The first volume covers the Gospels from early-period fragments, while the second addresses the and Epistles, offering diplomatic transcriptions, variant readings, and English translations that facilitate linguistic analysis of this dialect's biblical translations. Müller-Kessler further expanded the corpus with editions in 2014 and 2019, focusing on undertexts from Sinai s, including pericopes from the and hagiographic materials, which reveal orthographic and syntactic features of middle-period CPA. Digital initiatives have revolutionized the study of CPA by uncovering previously illegible texts through advanced imaging techniques. The UCLA Library's Sinai Palimpsests Project, active since the early 2010s and ongoing as of 2025, has digitized and analyzed hundreds of palimpsests from St. Catherine's Monastery, significantly expanding the known CPA corpus by approximately 30% with new fragments, liturgical texts, and hagiographies in this language. These efforts, employing , have enabled scholars like Müller-Kessler to reconstruct and edit texts such as those in the Rescriptus, providing fresh insights into CPA's evolution from the 5th to 13th centuries. Recent studies highlight specialized textual editions and thematic explorations of CPA's middle period (roughly 8th–13th centuries). In 2019, Müller-Kessler published the first edition of the previously unknown Martyrdom of Patriklos of Caesarea, a hagiographic palimpsest from Sinai (Arabic NF 66), which includes unique narrative elements and dialectal forms not attested elsewhere, shedding light on CPA's role in Byzantine Christian literature. The Aram journal has featured several articles up to 2024 on middle-period CPA, such as analyses of inscriptions and bilingual epitaphs that illustrate the dialect's interactions with Greek and Arabic, emphasizing phonological shifts and lexical borrowings during the Islamic era. In 2025, Kim Phillips published an edition of two early Byzantine Bible manuscripts in CPA, Codex Climaci Rescriptus II & XI, adding to the corpus of biblical texts. Additionally, a 2025 article examined the rare usage of object suffixes in CPA biblical translations, contributing to understanding morphological features. Despite these advances, significant research gaps persist in CPA studies as of 2025. A comprehensive reference grammar synthesizing , morphology, and across all periods remains a desideratum, although foundational descriptive work exists in Christa Müller-Kessler's 1991 Grammatik des Christlich-Palästinisch-Aramäischen, which provides detailed coverage of script, phonology, and morphology. An updated incorporating post-1990s discoveries is also needed; current resources, like Sokoloff's , cover early texts but underexplore middle- and late-period variations. Broader historical and cultural contextualization of Aramaic, including CPA, is provided by Holger Gzella's 2015 A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Comparative with other Western dialects, particularly regarding shifts and assimilation, also requires dedicated monographic treatment to clarify CPA's place in the Aramaic continuum. Furthermore, coverage of finds after 2022, including new Sinai palimpsests and epigraphic discoveries like the 2024 'Uyun Umm el-'Azam inscription, highlights the need for integrated digital corpora to address these unresolved issues.

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