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Panicum repens
Panicum repens
Panicum repens
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Panicum repens
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Panicum
Species:
P. repens
Binomial name
Panicum repens
Torpedograss in a ditch

Panicum repens is a species of grass known by many common names, including torpedo grass, creeping panic, panic rampant, couch panicum, wainaku grass, quack grass, dog-tooth grass, and bullet grass. Its exact native range is obscure. Sources suggest that the grass is native to "Africa and/or Asia",[1] "Europe or Australia",[2] "Eurasia",[3] "Australia",[4] "Europe, Asia, and Africa",[5] or other specific regions, including the Mediterranean, and Argentina.[6] It is present in many places as an introduced species and often a noxious weed. It has been called "one of the world's worst weeds."[3]

Overview

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This perennial grass spreads via its large, branching rhizomes, which are thick and pointed. The pointed shape of the rhizome tip gives the plant the name torpedograss. The rhizomes creep along the ground or float in water, forming floating mats. They can reach a length of 6 m (20 ft) and a soil depth of 7 m (23 ft), and they can form a mat 15 cm (5.9 in) thick. The spreading rhizomes sprout repeatedly to form colonies of stems.[6] The stems are 20 to 90 cm (7.9 to 35.4 in) tall,[7] sometimes reaching 1 m (3 ft 3 in). They grow erect or bend down. The leaves are stiff and straight, linear in shape, and flat or folded. They are sometimes white in color and waxy in texture. The inflorescence is a loose panicle of branches bearing small spikelets 2 to 3 mm (0.079 to 0.118 in) long.[6][7]

Habitat

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This grass grows throughout the world in tropical and subtropical areas. It was introduced to the United States in seed for forage grasses and probably in ballast water from ships. It was also imported by the United States Department of Agriculture to grow as a forage grass for cattle. It was deliberately planted throughout South Florida and it easily escaped cultivation,[6] eventually becoming "one of the most serious weeds in Florida," spreading to more than 70% of the waterways in the state.[1] In Lake Okeechobee, it has invaded more than 16,000 acres of marsh.[6] It displaces native plants,[8] growing colonially in thick, monotypic stands.[3] Dense mats or stands of the grass cause hypoxia in the water.[6] Torpedograss management in flood-control systems costs an estimated US$2 million per year.[3]

The plant is established in sandy coastal habitat on the United States' Gulf Coast, such as beaches and dunes, from Florida to Texas, where it occurs with beach plants such as turtleweed (Batis maritima), saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), marsh fimbry (Fimbristylis spadicea), largeleaf pennywort (Hydrocotyle bonariensis), and dwarf saltwort (Salicornia bigelovii). It grows on many barrier islands. It grows in many types of wetland habitat, in and out of the water. It grows in freshwater marshes, salt marshes, mud flats, wet prairies, tide pools, bogs, and lakesides. It also invades drier habitat, such as coastal pine forests and white sand scrub. It easily moves into disturbed and cultivated areas such as ditches and canals.[6] It is a nuisance in sod production.[1] In other areas, it can be found in turf and orchards.[5] In the Florida turfgrass industry, it is the second-worst weed known.[9] The grass can grow in a variety of habitats, but it does not tolerate cold and it is rarely found above subtropical latitudes or at altitude.[6]

Propagation

[edit]

The grass spreads primarily via its rhizome. It has been noted to grow 1.3 cm (0.51 in) in length per day. The stems and rhizomes also produce tillers. The rhizome can endure drying and flooding. Dry or wet conditions may reduce the number of shoots produced by the rhizome, but they do not kill it. The rhizome can disperse when parts of it break off and drop onto the substrate elsewhere, anchoring and putting up new shoots. The plant survives and sprouts after herbicide application, grazing, cutting, plowing or disking, and burning. The grass rarely reproduces by seed.[6] It has been noted to reproduce by seed in Portugal,[9] but does not do so in the United States,[10] and it was described as "incapable of fruiting" in Japan. Seeds are sometimes observed but they are apparently rarely viable, with many studies describing zero germination.[6]

The grass has been widely planted as forage for cattle because it is so hardy, withstanding grazing and trampling, and it can be made into hay. However, it is not one of the more palatable or nutritious grasses. It is also good for erosion control because it binds the soil. Indeed, it is still recommended for planting along shorelines to stabilize them.[11]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Panicum repens

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Panicum repens, commonly known as torpedograss, is a grass species in the family, native to tropical and subtropical regions of , , and , characterized by its extensive, sharp-tipped creeping rhizomes that enable rapid vegetative spread and formation of dense, mat-like colonies up to 1 meter tall. It features erect or decumbent stems, linear leaves with hairy sheaths, and loose panicles of spikelets that produce caryopses with limited viability, making rhizomes the primary means of propagation. Widely introduced to the , , and Pacific Islands, often as a grass or contaminant in , P. repens has become a highly invasive in many areas, particularly in the where it infests over 70% of public waters in and is listed as a noxious species in states including , , , and . Its native range spans from the Mediterranean Basin through tropical and southern to , with historical introductions to the possibly dating back centuries. In introduced regions, it thrives in diverse habitats such as wetlands, marshes, lake margins, coastal dunes, and disturbed sites, tolerating flooding, , , and a wide range but showing sensitivity to prolonged freezing temperatures below -5°C (23°F). Ecologically, P. repens outcompetes native vegetation through aggressive rhizome growth, forming monocultures that reduce and alter hydrologic patterns in aquatic ecosystems, while also serving as a host for pests and supporting limited with low . Economically, it poses significant challenges as a weed in crops like , , and turf, causing yield losses and increasing management costs, though it has some positive uses including as a salt-tolerant for , in saline soils, and in . Management typically involves integrated approaches with herbicides such as or , mechanical removal, and prescribed fire, as the plant's resilient s make eradication difficult.

Taxonomy

Classification

Panicum repens is classified within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class , order , family , subfamily , genus , and species P. repens. This placement situates it among the monocotyledonous flowering plants, specifically within the diverse grass family , which encompasses over 11,000 species worldwide. Within the genus (now circumscribed to approximately 250 species following recent revisions, down from broader estimates of around 450 cosmopolitan species), P. repens is distinguished from congeners like P. virgatum (switchgrass) by its long, sharply pointed rhizomes that facilitate aggressive vegetative spread and soil penetration, contrasting with the shorter, more loosely interwoven rhizomes of P. virgatum that often form knotty crowns or clumps. Molecular phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the of core sections, including the placement of P. repens within the subfamily, supporting its evolutionary relationships based on ndhF gene data. The taxonomic history of P. repens traces back to its original description by in 1762, with subsequent revisions reflecting broader changes in the genus , where many species have been segregated into independent genera over the past two centuries due to advances in morphological and molecular . These revisions, informed by works such as GrassBase by Clayton et al. (2006, updated 2018), have refined the circumscription of s.s., emphasizing P. repens's position in a characterized by , rhizomatous habits.

Nomenclature and synonyms

The genus name Panicum derives from the Latin panicum, an ancient term for Italian millet (Panicum miliaceum), referring to millet-like grasses with swollen panicles. The specific epithet repens is the present participle of the Latin verb repo, meaning "to creep" or "to crawl," alluding to the species' creeping rhizomatous growth . Common names for Panicum repens include torpedograss (reflecting the sharp, pointed tips of its rhizomes), couch panicum, creeping panic, quack grass (though this name is also applied to the unrelated ), bullet grass, dog-tooth grass, and wainaku grass. The basionym is Panicum repens L., originally described by in , ed. 2, p. 87, in 1762, based on specimens from tropical regions. The type specimen is housed in the Linnaean at the (LINN-80.74), collected from by Clas Alströmer. Historical synonyms, as recognized in modern botanical revisions, include Panicum airoides R. Br., Panicum aquaticum A. Rich., Panicum arenarium Brot., Panicum gouinii E. Fourn., Panicum ischaemoides Retz., Panicum leiogonum Delile, Panicum littorale C. Mohr ex Vasey, Panicum proliferum Lam., Panicum roxburghianum Schult., and Panicum uliginosum Roxb. ex Roem. & Schult. These synonyms arise from earlier descriptions of variants or misidentifications in tropical floras, consolidated under P. repens in contemporary by authorities like the .

Description

Morphology

Panicum repens is a grass characterized by its robust vegetative structure adapted to environments. The culms are erect or decumbent, typically 20-90 cm tall and 1.8-2.8 mm thick, often branching from the lower and middle nodes, with nodes that are glabrous or sparsely hairy; lower internodes may root at the nodes. Leaves are both basal and cauline, with blades that are flat or folded, stiff, 5-30 cm long and 2-10 mm wide, often featuring a white-waxy surface and scabrid margins; the is membranous and , measuring 0.5-2 mm long, while sheaths are generally glabrous or sparsely hairy and may shred with age. The rhizomes are long, creeping, and branching, up to 5 mm thick, covered in scales, and sharply pointed at the tips, facilitating soil penetration and contributing to the plant's aggressive spread. These rhizomes form an extensive underground network, enabling the species to establish dense colonies. The is an open, terminal , 7-25 cm long and ovate to narrowly elliptic in outline, with branches 2-11 cm long that spread or ascend at before contracting; branches are smooth or scabrid and bear numerous on the longer ones. are elliptic to narrowly ovate, glabrous, 2.2-3 mm long, and acute to acuminate, occurring solitary; they are awnless, with the lower ovate and 1/5-1/3 the spikelet length, while the upper glume and lower lemma equal the spikelet length. The root system is fibrous and extensive, primarily arising from the rhizomatous network, which allows for the formation of dense mats that stabilize soil in moist habitats.

Growth characteristics

Panicum repens is a grass that persists across multiple growing seasons through its extensive system, which allows for regrowth from underground buds even after aboveground tissues are damaged or removed. This geophytic habit enables the plant to store carbohydrates in rhizomes, supporting rapid regeneration and contributing to its invasive potential in disturbed habitats. The species exhibits vigorous growth, with shoots capable of elongating at rates up to 2.3 cm per day under optimal conditions, reaching heights of 1 m within three months following flooding or disturbance. extension can occur at a maximum rate of 1.3 cm per day, facilitating horizontal spread and the formation of dense colonies through tillering at nodes. These colonies often develop into compact stands 0.8–1 m tall, with erect or decumbent culms arising from a knotty base. Phenologically, P. repens flowers from May to November in subtropical regions like , producing open panicles under warm temperatures, while vegetative growth continues year-round in tropical climates. In temperate zones, flowering aligns with summer months (–), though seed set varies widely. P. repens demonstrates notable environmental tolerances, including resistance to once established due to deep rhizomes that access , and the ability to withstand flooding for up to four months. It tolerates levels up to approximately 20 ppt, with reduced but sustained growth in brackish conditions, and shows partial . However, prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures below -5°C can cause mortality, though insulated cover may permit survival at lower thresholds like -14°C.

Reproduction

Vegetative propagation

_Panicum repens primarily propagates vegetatively through its extensive system, which extends horizontally in the soil, enabling rapid clonal expansion. The rhizomes grow at rates up to 1.3 cm per day, facilitated by their sharp, pointed tips that penetrate soil layers effectively. These , typically 0.1 to 0.2 inches in diameter and covered in overlapping scales, produce new shoots and roots from nodes along their length, allowing the plant to form dense colonies. Tillering occurs at nodes, where axillary buds develop into new shoots, contributing to the plant's ability to regenerate from fragments. pieces as small as those containing a single node—often just a few centimeters long—can sprout and establish new plants, making fragmentation a key dispersal mechanism. These fragments are commonly spread by equipment, which breaks the rhizomes during cultivation, or by water flow in flooded or irrigated areas, further promoting invasion. This rapid vegetative spread is driven by prolific node production—one rhizome may generate over 22,000 nodes in a year. This allows the to dominate habitats quickly, outcompeting other . The s exhibit strong survival mechanisms, persisting in anaerobic, flooded soils for several months while maintaining viability for regrowth. They resist mechanical disturbances like plowing, as buried fragments up to 50 cm deep can still emerge and regenerate. This resilience underscores the challenges in controlling the plant's proliferation.

Seed production and dispersal

Panicum repens exhibits limited through seed production, with panicles forming the inflorescences that bear the . Although the plant produces , seed set is often low, and viability is generally poor in many regions, particularly in introduced areas like where rates are reported as low to none. are small, with an average mass of approximately 0.65 mg. Seed dispersal mechanisms for P. repens are not extensively documented due to the rarity of viable , but available evidence indicates primary reliance on anemochory ( dispersal) and hydrochory ( dispersal), facilitated by the plant's habitats where may float on surfaces. Occasional zoochory occurs, as have been recovered from fecal pellets in natural settings. Germination of P. repens seeds requires moist conditions and exposure to , with optimal rates achieved under fluctuating temperatures (e.g., 20–32°C), yielding up to 90% in some studies from native ranges. , often physical due to the seed coat, can be effectively broken through , such as removal of the seed coat, resulting in up to 80% when combined with photothermic regimes like 35/20°C on a suitable medium. Despite these potential mechanisms, production and dispersal play a minor role in the of P. repens compared to its dominant vegetative spread via rhizomes, with viable formation being infrequent and highly variable across populations.

Distribution and habitat

Native range

Panicum repens is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the , encompassing in the Mediterranean basin, from the southward to , from the to including and the ; its status in is uncertain. Its exact native range is somewhat obscure, with sources varying on details. This distribution reflects its adaptation to warm climates and moist environments prior to human-mediated introductions elsewhere. Historical evidence supporting this native range includes early herbarium specimens collected in the Mediterranean region and during the , as documented in major botanical collections, confirming its pre-colonial presence in these areas. Fossil records for the species itself are limited. In , it is particularly common in coastal dunes and sandy soils along the and coastlines. These habitats highlight its preference for disturbed, moist substrates across diverse ecosystems.

Introduced ranges and invasiveness

Panicum repens, commonly known as torpedo grass, was introduced to the in the 19th century, primarily for use as . It was first documented in during the 1870s and collected in by 1876, likely arriving via or intentional planting in the . Today, it is widespread across the , including , , , , and over 20 other states; it has also established in Central and , the , and Pacific islands such as and . The species exhibits strong invasive potential outside its native range due to its ability to form dense monocultures through . Rhizome fragments, which can be transported by water, machinery, or human activities, enable rapid colonization, particularly in canals, ditches, and wetlands. In , it has invaded approximately 70% of public waterways, displacing native and forming extensive mats that alter habitats. Panicum repens is designated as a noxious weed in several U.S. states, including , , , and , and is classified as a Category I by the , indicating its high potential to disrupt native ecosystems. It is also considered invasive and other tropical regions. Management challenges contribute to significant economic costs, with annual expenditures for control in Florida's flood control systems alone estimated at $2 million (as of the 1990s), affecting agriculture, groves, courses, and . The spreads aggressively via rhizomes, with individual segments capable of producing thousands of nodes annually, leading to unchecked expansion in disturbed aquatic environments.

Ecology

Habitat preferences

Panicum repens thrives in moist to wet soils across a range of textures, including sandy, loamy, silty, and clay types, with a preferred range of 5 to 8. It tolerates standing up to 1 meter deep, establishing well in depths of 75 cm or less while surviving prolonged flooding beyond that, and it can endure brackish conditions with moderate but not fully marine environments. These preferences enable it to occupy saturated substrates where water tables are high or seasonal inundation occurs. The requires full sun for optimal growth, with shading above 25% significantly reducing production and vigor. It performs best in warm subtropical to tropical climates corresponding to USDA hardiness zones 8 to 11, where mean daily temperatures range from 21°C to 32°C; growth slows or ceases below 10°C, and prolonged exposure to temperatures below 5°C can be lethal. is commonly found in habitats such as marshes, swamps, ditches, rice paddies, lake margins, and disturbed moist areas, but it avoids shaded forests or arid upland sites lacking consistent moisture. Key adaptations include its extensive system, which features tissues for aeration in flooded, oxygen-poor soils, allowing survival and regeneration under anaerobic conditions. Additionally, the exhibits strong competitiveness in nutrient-rich environments, rapidly colonizing eutrophic wetlands through vigorous extension and high storage that supports regrowth after disturbance.

Interactions with ecosystems

Panicum repens engages in intense competitive interactions with native wetland vegetation, forming dense stands that outcompete and displace species such as spikerush ( spp.) and sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense). In Florida's marsh, invasions have overtaken over 18,000 acres of native habitat, converting diverse habitats into monocultures and significantly reducing plant . This dominance is facilitated by allelopathic phytotoxic compounds released through leachates, which inhibit seed germination and growth of co-occurring natives. The grass serves as a food source for various herbivores, exhibiting moderate palatability to when young and tolerant to heavy grazing and trampling. Waterfowl, including snow geese (Anser caerulescens) and (Branta bernicla), consume its seeds and foliage in coastal marshes, while certain like redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli) graze on submerged portions. Pathogen interactions include susceptibility to rust fungi such as Puccinia panici, though P. repens demonstrates overall resilience to many fungal and bacterial diseases, limiting widespread outbreaks. Ecological effects of P. repens extend to broader alterations, including sediment stabilization via extensive networks that trap particles and form floating tussocks, thereby modifying local and impeding water flow in wetlands and canals. In drier conditions, the accumulated elevates risk, producing hotter burns that increase mortality among sensitive natives like sawgrass. These changes also harm aquatic by diminishing open water areas, reducing dissolved oxygen levels, and fragmenting habitats essential for and . Mutualistic associations for P. repens are limited, with reports of asymbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its potentially contributing to acquisition and tolerance in low-nitrogen soils. Such interactions, though not as pronounced as in , may enhance the plant's invasiveness in nutrient-poor environments.

Uses and management

Agricultural applications

_Panicum repens, commonly known as torpedo grass, serves as a crop in tropical and subtropical regions, valued for its and resistance to and . It is utilized as or cut for hay, providing nutritious feed for ruminants with a crude protein content ranging from 7.9% to 14.0% on a basis, averaging around 10.9%. Its extended growing season and tolerance to flooding and enhance its utility in such applications. In South-East Asia, it is regarded as an excellent native , with rhizomes from sandy soils occasionally fed to due to their high . The species was intentionally introduced to the U.S. Gulf Coast states prior to 1876, and more extensively in seed mixtures by the 1920s, as a potential to replace less resilient grasses. By the 1950s, however, it had escaped cultivation and become a problematic , leading to restrictions on its planting and promotion in agricultural settings. Beyond forage, the aggressive rhizomatous growth of Panicum repens aids in , making it suitable for along canal banks, shorelines, and sandy terrains. Its extensive binds soil effectively, and it is recommended for shoreline stabilization in areas subject to inundation up to 6 feet deep or periodic . In , it has been employed in reclamation projects, particularly for saline soils, leveraging its moderate salt tolerance to restore degraded lands. Panicum repens shows potential as a feedstock owing to its substantial production, yielding up to 11 tons of per annually on soils under favorable conditions. Despite this, its agricultural adoption has declined due to invasiveness, which outcompetes desirable species and complicates management. Yields also diminish in saline environments, with accumulation reduced under moderate to high levels.

Control strategies

Mechanical control methods for Panicum repens, commonly known as torpedograss, include repeated mowing, , and in aquatic environments, but these approaches offer only short-term suppression due to the plant's extensive system, which fragments and regenerates vigorously from small pieces. and mowing exhaust rhizome reserves over time with consistent application but can promote spread if fragments are dispersed, making them less suitable for large infestations. In waterways, removes biomass effectively but requires follow-up treatments to prevent regrowth from remaining rhizomes. Chemical control relies primarily on postemergence herbicides such as and , which translocate to rhizomes for more thorough kill when applied during active growth periods. , applied at 2-3% v/v as a directed foliar spray, achieves 80-100% reduction in treated areas, while provides similar efficacy but is restricted in landscapes due to persistence. Fall applications, when allocate resources to rhizomes before , enhance long-term control by targeting underground structures, often requiring 1-2 follow-up treatments for 80-90% suppression of regrowth. Other options like fluazifop-P-butyl or sethoxydim offer selective control in turf but demand multiple applications for comparable results. Biological control remains experimental, with no commercially available agents, though grazing by goats or cattle suppresses growth by consuming palatable foliage and can integrate into management plans without fragmenting rhizomes. Research explores pathogens, such as fungi evaluated by the , for potential rhizome-targeted suppression, but efficacy trials are ongoing and not yet field-implemented. Integrated pest management combines mechanical, chemical, and preventive strategies for sustainable control, emphasizing clean equipment to avoid rhizome transport and post-treatment restoration with native plants to outcompete regrowth. In the United States, particularly , aquatic control requires permits from the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission to regulate herbicide use and mechanical removal in public waters. Challenges in managing P. repens stem from its resilience, with even small rhizome fragments (as little as 1 cm) regenerating into infestations, necessitating vigilant monitoring and repeated interventions over 2-3 years for eradication. Regulatory restrictions on herbicide application in sensitive habitats further complicate efforts in invasive aquatic settings.

References

  1. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.38670
  2. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/graminoid/panrep/all.html
  3. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP615
  4. https://www.gbif.org/species/2705093
  5. https://floranorthamerica.org/Panicum_repens
  6. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1194715-2
  7. https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.90.5.796
  8. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:412908-1
  9. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=36085
  10. https://worldofsucculents.com/epithets/repens/
  11. https://ausgrass2.myspecies.info/content/panicum-repens
  12. https://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=777
  13. http://floranorthamerica.org/Panicum_repens
  14. https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/05/42/33/00001/PRINCE_C.pdf
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317832907_Salinity_Effects_on_Growth_Characteristics_Biomass_Accumulation_and_Some_Physiological_Changes_of_Torpedograss_Panicum_repens_L
  16. https://fbmg.org/files/2020/10/Torpedo-Grass.pdf
  17. https://www.hpc.msstate.edu/publications/docs/2019/12/16375Torpedograss_12-16-19.pdf
  18. https://plant-directory.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/panicum-repens/
  19. https://www.stewardsoflakeseminole.com/torpedograss/
  20. https://apms.org/wp-content/uploads/japm-34-02-050.pdf
  21. https://floraveg.eu/factsheet/default/124534
  22. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/51388
  23. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Panicum+repens
  24. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5842878/
  25. https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Panicum~repens
  26. https://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.cfm?sub=3060
  27. https://www.se-eppc.org/wildlandweeds/pdf/su98-langeland-p4-6.pdf
  28. https://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/pdf.php?sc=777
  29. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/StateNoxiousWeedsSeedList.pdf
  30. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07438140409354096
  31. https://www.fnai.org/species-communities/invasives/invasive-species?ID=118
  32. https://www.sfwmd.gov/sites/default/files/documents/lakeoprimaryexoticcontrolspecies.pdf
  33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4042850
  34. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/408
  35. https://prosea.prota4u.org/view.aspx?id=20
  36. https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/franklinco/2014/03/12/invasive-species-of-the-day-march-5th-torpedo-grass-hydrilla/
  37. https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/torpedograss
  38. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_pare3.pdf
  39. https://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=PARE3
  40. https://apms.org/wp-content/uploads/japm-55-02-65.pdf
  41. https://corpslakes.erdc.dren.mil/employees/invasive/pdfs/P_repens.pdf
  42. https://myfwc.com/license/aquatic-plants/florida-statutes/
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