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Personal stereo
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A Sony WM-75 Sports Walkman

A personal stereo, or personal cassette player, is a portable audio player for cassette tapes. This allows the user to listen to music through headphones while walking, jogging or relaxing. Personal stereos typically have a belt clip or a shoulder strap so a user can attach the device to a belt or wear it over their shoulder. Some personal stereos came with a separate battery case. With invention of compact radios based on transistors and integrated circuits and there was also many portable radio receivers with the support of FM stereo (optionally with AM, MW, LW) on the market.

History

[edit]

The Sony Walkman was released in 1979, created by Akio Morita, Masaru Ibuka (the co-founders of Sony) and Kozo Ohsone. It became a popular and widely imitated consumer item in the 1980s. In everyday language, walkman became a generic term, referring to any personal stereo, regardless of producer or brand.[1] The spread of personal stereo devices contributed to tape cassettes outselling vinyl records for the first time in 1983. The introduction of the personal stereo coincided with the 1980s aerobics vogue, making it very popular to listen to music during workouts. Moreover, the prevalence of portable cassette players correlates with a 30-percent increase in people walking for exercise between 1987 and 1997.[2]

In the 1990s, portable CD players became the most popular personal stereos.

With the rise of free-to-listen FM stereo stations broadcasting commercial music and talk shows 24/7, small size personal FM stereo devices that use plugged-in wired headsets as antennas have become cheaper alternatives to listening commercial music on tapes and CDs. At the same time, many personal cassette and CD players had built-in FM and AM.

See also: Walkman § Portable_radio_receivers

In the 2000s, digital players like the iPod became the dominant personal stereos. During this period, cell phones and smartphones also became popular music listening devices. Most of digital players and mobile phones has built-in FM stereo receiver, and some devices (Sony Ericsson W980, Nokia N79[3]) has also built-in FM stereo transmiter for microbroadcasting.

  • Sony Walkman WM-FX151
    Sony Walkman WM-FX151
  • Sony Walkman SRF-A
    Sony Walkman SRF-A
  • Sony Walkman SRF-S84
    Sony Walkman SRF-S84
  • Sony Walkman SRF-M10
    Sony Walkman SRF-M10
  • Sony NWZ-E585 Walkman
    Sony NWZ-E585 Walkman
  • Sony Ericsson W980
    Sony Ericsson W980

References

[edit]

Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Personal stereo

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A personal stereo is a compact, battery-powered audio player designed for individual use, enabling private listening to music through lightweight , typically via cassette tapes or other media, and revolutionizing portable since its inception in the . The concept originated with the Stereobelt, invented in 1972 by German engineer , who envisioned a belt-worn device combining a cassette player, amplifier, and to enhance everyday experiences with personal soundtracks. filed patents starting in 1977 across multiple countries, including and , after initial rejections from companies like and Yamaha, but faced delays in commercialization due to lack of interest. The device's true breakthrough came with 's launch of the in 1979, specifically the TPS-L2 model released on July 1 in , which adapted similar technology into a sleek, user-friendly format despite internal skepticism at . Pavel's legal battles against Sony, spanning over two decades, culminated in a 2003 settlement where acknowledged his pioneering role and paid him royalties exceeding $10 million, affirming the Stereobelt's foundational influence on personal stereos. The quickly became a cultural phenomenon, selling millions worldwide by the early and spawning variants like the Soundabout in the U.S. and Freestyle in , while inspiring competitors such as Sanyo's M5550. By 1995, had produced over 150 million units, shifting consumption from communal to individualized, fostering a "walkman culture" of on-the-go listening that influenced urban mobility and personal expression. Personal stereos evolved from analog cassette players to digital formats in the 1980s and 1990s, including CD-based models introduced by in 1984, before transitioning to players and smartphones in the , but their core legacy endures in modern wireless earbuds and streaming devices. This innovation not only democratized access to high-fidelity stereo sound but also sparked debates on , as private audio cocoons altered public interactions in cities and transit.

Overview

Definition and components

A personal stereo is a compact, battery-powered device designed for individual audio playback, primarily utilizing cassette tapes to deliver through . The first mass-market personal stereo was introduced by in 1979 with the TPS-L2 model, it represented a breakthrough in portable audio technology by miniaturizing components for personal use. Key components of a personal stereo include the mechanism, which handles tape transport via a head and pinch roller; built-in stereo amplifiers for processing and boosting the ; a headphone jack for connecting lightweight ; volume controls, often with independent sliders for left and right channels; and a power source, typically two AA batteries for extended portability. The , adapted from compact recording devices like the Pressman, accommodates standard prerecorded cassettes placed horizontally for efficient playback. Stereophonic sound reproduction in personal stereos employs two independent audio channels—one for the left ear and one for the right—to separate signals and create an illusion of spatial depth and directionality. This dual-channel approach, amplified through the device's integrated circuits, enhances immersion by directing specific audio elements to each ear via stereo headphones. In operation, a user inserts a prerecorded cassette into the deck, initiates playback using simple controls such as play, stop, fast-forward, and rewind buttons, and connects to the jack for private listening that isolates the audio from surrounding . The amplifiers then process the tape's magnetic signals into balanced output, powered efficiently by the battery to support on-the-go use.

Historical significance

The personal stereo emerged in the late as the first mass-market device enabling on-the-go private music listening, fundamentally shifting audio consumption from communal experiences—such as shared home stereos or public radios—to individualized, personal ones. This innovation allowed users to curate their own soundscapes in public spaces, fostering a new era of mobility in entertainment and influencing social behaviors around music. A key milestone was Sony's launch of the in July 1979, which exceeded initial projections by selling over 30,000 units in the first two months despite modest expectations of 5,000 per month. This rapid uptake established personal audio as a cultural norm, embedding portable stereos into everyday life and popular media, from fashion to film. In the long term, the personal stereo paved the way for subsequent portable media devices, including CD players like the in the 1980s and players in the 1990s, ultimately shaping the portability of modern music streaming services. Its enduring influence is evident in how it normalized private, location-independent audio access, a foundation for today's wireless earbuds and smartphones. Economically, the device created a burgeoning market segment in , with alone shipping 550,000 units worldwide in 1980 and projecting over 1.65 million in 1981, signaling explosive growth that attracted numerous competitors. By the late 1980s, had sold more than 50 million Walkmans globally, and cumulative sales across formats exceeded 200 million units by the 1990s, underscoring its role in generating substantial industry revenue and innovation.

History

Precursors to portability

The development of personal stereos was preceded by innovations in portable audio during the mid-20th century, beginning with the in the , which marked the first truly portable, battery-powered devices for audio reception. Introduced in 1954, the Regency TR-1, produced by and Industrial Development Engineering Associates, measured just 5 inches tall and weighed 11 ounces, operating on a single 22.5-volt battery for up to 20 hours of AM radio playback without requiring an AC outlet. This contrasted sharply with earlier tube-based portable radios from the and , which were bulky, heavy, and reliant on multiple high-voltage batteries with short lifespans, limiting their mobility. Transistor radios enabled on-the-go listening, often paired with attachable earphones for private use, and quickly became cultural staples among teenagers, with over 150,000 TR-1 units sold at $50 each. Building on this foundation, the saw the emergence of portable cassette recorders, exemplified by ' EL 3300, unveiled in August 1963 at the Radio Exhibition as the world's first mass-produced compact cassette device. Battery-operated and pocket-sized for its era, the EL 3300 allowed compact tape recording and playback but was primarily designed for dictation and rather than dedicated music playback, lacking widespread consumer appeal due to its utilitarian focus. These early recorders represented a shift toward recorded audio portability, though they remained niche tools for professionals like journalists. A more direct precursor to the personal stereo emerged in 1972 when German-Brazilian inventor Andreas developed the Stereobelt, a belt-worn device that combined a stereo cassette player, amplifier, and lightweight for private music listening during daily activities. filed patents for the invention starting in March 1977 in , followed by applications in , the , the , and other countries, though initial commercialization efforts faced rejections from companies like and Yamaha. Several key technological enablers paved the way for these precursors. The compact cassette format was invented in 1962 by and a team of about 40 engineers at in , , standardizing a small, durable cartridge with 3.81 mm tape that offered 30 minutes of playback per side in mono configuration. Concurrently, ongoing miniaturization of from the late 1940s through the reduced component sizes from millimeters to integrated circuits by 1961, slashing power needs and enabling lighter, more reliable battery-powered electronics. Early headphone designs further supported private listening; for instance, in 1958, John Koss introduced the SP/3 stereo headphones with foam earpads and plastic earcups, optimized for personal hi-fi systems and compatible with emerging stereo sound principles that separated left and right audio channels. Despite these advances, precursors to personal stereos faced significant limitations that hindered their role as everyday music players. Devices like the and EL 3300 were often bulky by modern standards—still requiring cases larger than a shirt pocket—and delivered only mono sound, without the immersive separation that would later define personal audio. Moreover, their emphasis on recording or broadcast reception over seamless playback meant they did not yet fulfill the vision of a fully self-contained, mobile music companion.

Invention and launch of the Walkman

The development of the Walkman began as an internal project in within the company's Tape Recorder Division, initiated by Kozo Ohsone following a corporate that limited production to dictation machines and monaural recorders. Engineer Nobutoshi Kihara led the effort, assembling a team of about 10 members to adapt existing compact cassette technology—building on earlier portable recorders like the Pressman—for a playback-only device emphasizing ultra-portability and lightweight design. Over six months, the team stripped recording functions from a based on the TC-D5 cassette player, incorporating innovations such as dual headphone jacks, a mechanical mute , and a feature for brief external conversations without removing . The launched in on July 1, 1979, as the TPS-L2 model, priced at ¥33,000 (approximately $150 at the time). It featured a distinctive blue-and-silver metal , hot-swappable cassette functionality allowing tape changes without interrupting playback, and a total weight of 390 grams including lightweight . Powered by two AA batteries for up to eight hours of use, the device measured 88 × 133.5 × 29 mm, making it compact enough for pocket carry. Sony's eschewed traditional , instead relying on experiential demonstrations to showcase the device's portability. Launch events featured young people—such as joggers, cyclists, and commuters—using the in urban settings like Tokyo's , which generated buzz through word-of-mouth and media coverage. This approach proved effective, with initial sales reaching 3,000 units by the end of July and 30,000 by August, far exceeding projections of 5,000 monthly. The project faced initial challenges, including skepticism from executives and retailers who questioned the market for a non-recording playback device, viewing it as a niche without broad appeal. President championed the initiative, staking his reputation on its success despite internal doubts, which ultimately propelled the to rapid adoption as the archetype of personal stereos.

Expansion and market competition

Following its debut in Japan, the Sony Walkman launched in the United States in 1980 under the same name, fueling a surge in portable audio demand. Sony shipped 550,000 Walkman units worldwide that year, marking the onset of a global boom in personal stereos. Over the subsequent decade, cumulative sales reached 50 million units internationally, including 25 million in the U.S. market alone, as the device transformed music listening into a mobile, personal experience. Competition intensified rapidly, with introducing its "Stereo-to-Go" series, exemplified by the RQ-J9 model released in 1981, which offered compact playback and radio capabilities. entered the fray in 1980 with the TP-S30, marketed as the world's first personal stereo recorder and featuring tape counter and balance controls for enhanced usability. By the mid-1980s, and Sharp joined with innovative models like Toshiba's KT-PS3, which incorporated auto-reverse functionality to allow seamless playback of both cassette sides without manual intervention. These rivals often matched or exceeded Sony's offerings in build quality and features, driving industry-wide innovation and market expansion. The personal stereo market evolved through the with refinements for active lifestyles, including belt-clip attachments for hands-free use and integrated FM radios for broadcast listening alongside cassettes. By the mid-, manufacturers introduced enhanced playback mechanisms to reduce interruptions from movement, such as stabilized drive systems in models from and , ensuring more reliable audio during or commuting. Production peaked in the , with personal stereos becoming standard accessories amid widespread adoption, before the format's eventual shift. The decline of cassette-based personal stereos accelerated in the late due to inherent limitations like tape degradation, which caused audio hiss and wear over repeated plays, coupled with the superior clarity and durability of emerging technology. sales surpassed cassettes globally in 1991, prompting a transition to portable players that offered skip-resistant playback and better sound fidelity. By the early 2000s, cassette personal stereos had become obsolete, largely replaced in consumer preferences and manufacturing lines by digital alternatives.

Technology

Audio playback systems

The cassette mechanism in personal stereos relies on a capstan and pinch roller system to achieve constant tape speed, essential for faithful audio . The capstan, a motor-driven metal shaft, rotates at a precise rate to pull the tape forward, while the adjacent pinch roller—a rubberized wheel—applies firm pressure to grip and advance the tape without slippage or variation. This configuration ensures a standard linear tape speed of 4.76 cm/s (1 7/8 inches per second), preventing distortions such as wow (low-frequency speed fluctuations) and flutter (high-frequency variations) that could alter pitch and timing. Paired with this transport system are specialized magnetic heads that perform recording, playback, and erasure functions, often integrated into a compact rotating assembly in auto-reverse models to flip orientation for bidirectional playback. The playback head detects variations in the tape's , converting them into weak electrical signals corresponding to the original audio; the record head reverses this process by magnetizing the tape with audio-modulated signals during ; and the erase head generates a high-frequency (typically 50-100 kHz) to randomize and effectively demagnetize prior recordings, clearing the tape for new content. These heads, usually constructed from ferrite or materials for durability and sensitivity, are positioned to make intimate contact with the tape window, with gaps optimized (around 1-3 microns for audio tracks) to balance high-frequency response and prevention. Electronic components process the signals from these heads to enhance audio quality before output. Pre-amplifiers, integrated into the player's circuitry, amplify the low-level output from the playback head—often in the range of 0.1-1 mV—to a usable (around 200-500 mV), compensating for the inherent weakness of magnetic induction while minimizing added noise through low-noise transistors or op-amps. Equalizers then shape the to match tape formulations (e.g., boosting highs for Type I ferric tapes), ensuring balanced playback across the 30 Hz to 16 kHz range typical of compact cassettes. noise reduction systems, miniaturized for 1980s models like the Sony Walkman Pro, further refine this by dynamically compressing during recording (reducing high-frequency hiss by up to 10 dB with B) and expanding it on playback, a feature that became standard to combat the audible tape noise amplified in personal listening scenarios. Power management in these battery-powered devices centers on efficient DC motors driving the tape transport, typically coreless or ironless types for smooth, low-vibration operation. These motors, powered by 1.5V AA cells, provide the needed for capstan and reel take-up, with (PWM) control optimizing speed regulation and extending runtime to 4-10 hours of continuous playback on a single set of batteries—impressive given the dual load of motor and audio amplification. Design variations include belt-drive configurations, where rubber belts transfer motion from the motor to the capstan and for compactness and cost-effectiveness, though prone to slippage and aging; and direct-drive setups, coupling the motor shaft directly to the capstan for superior stability, reduced wow/flutter (often below 0.1%), and long-term reliability without belt degradation. Stereo channel separation is maintained by dual independent tracks on the tape and corresponding head channels, isolating left and right audio signals to preserve spatial . Each stereo channel occupies a 0.6 track width with a 0.3 guard band to limit bleed, while electronic shielding and balanced circuitry in the pre-amplifier stage minimize —the unwanted coupling between channels—to levels below -30 dB, ensuring clear left-right differentiation even in demanding headphone listening. High-end models achieved -40 dB or better through precise head alignment and low-impedance paths, contributing to the immersive field that defined personal stereo experiences.

Integration of stereo sound and headphones

The integration of stereo sound in personal stereos relies on separate left and right audio channels derived from stereophonic recordings, routed through a standard 3.5 mm stereo headphone jack to deliver binaural audio that creates a sense of spatial depth and immersion for the listener. This design simulates the natural separation of sound sources, enhancing the listening experience without the need for external speakers. Early models like the TPS-L2 incorporated dual 3.5 mm jacks, allowing two users to share the stereo output simultaneously, with a of 40–12,000 Hz and a maximum power output of 15 mW to ensure clear playback on battery power. Headphones for personal stereos evolved toward lightweight, compact designs optimized for portability, such as over-ear or in-ear models with dynamic drivers for balanced sound reproduction. The original MDR-3L6 headphones, bundled with the TPS-L2, featured foam earpads and a weight of approximately 50 grams, making them comfortable for extended mobile use. These typically had low impedance ratings of 16–32 ohms to match the limited power output of portable devices, ensuring efficient volume levels without requiring additional amplification. Accessories enhanced the usability of personal stereos, including protective carrying cases to shield the device during transport, extension cords to increase headphone reach, and wired remote controls for hands-free operation of basic functions. Later models introduced microphone attachments compatible with dictation modes, allowing users to record voice notes via a built-in or external mic activated through a dedicated hotline button, which temporarily mixes microphone input into the headphone output for monitoring. User controls on personal stereos were designed for intuitive operation, featuring mechanical buttons for play, pause/stop, fast-forward, and rewind to navigate cassette tapes efficiently. Balance adjustments, often via independent left/right sliders or knobs, allowed fine-tuning of channel levels to compensate for audio imbalances or personal preferences.

Types and variations

Cassette-based models

Cassette-based personal stereos began with entry-level models designed for basic portability and affordability, emphasizing compact size and simple playback functionality. The WM-2, introduced in 1981, exemplified this category as one of the earliest compact units, measuring 29.5 x 109 x 80 mm and weighing 280 grams including two AA batteries, targeted at budget-conscious users seeking essential tape playback without advanced features. These models often prioritized lightweight construction and stereo output to reduce costs, appealing to everyday commuters and casual listeners. Mid-range variants introduced enhancements like auto-reverse mechanisms to improve user convenience during extended listening sessions. The WM-7, released in 1983, was a pioneering example in this tier, featuring the first electronic logic-controlled auto-reverse system that allowed continuous playback on both sides of a cassette without manual intervention, alongside B for clearer audio. This innovation marked a significant in analog cassette , balancing added functionality with still-portable dimensions around 80 x 134 x 31 mm and battery life extending up to 10 hours on two AA cells. High-end cassette models incorporated premium audio capabilities and additional features for discerning users, such as compatibility with metal tapes for superior . The HS-P7, launched in 1984, represented this segment with support for metal tape playback and B , while its shock-resistant construction—achieved through reinforced internals—suited active lifestyles by minimizing skips during movement. These devices typically weighed around 260 grams without batteries and offered battery life of about 8 hours on two AAA cells, focusing on and durability over mere portability. Regional adaptations of cassette-based personal stereos addressed specific user needs, particularly in active and outdoor environments. Sony's series in the , including water-resistant variants like the WM-FS555, featured sealed designs resistant to and impacts, enabling use during such as running, with models providing up to 32 hours of playback and rugged builds for enthusiasts in humid or wet conditions. These adaptations maintained core cassette playback technology while enhancing resilience for specialized applications.

Transitions to digital formats

The transition from analog cassette-based personal stereos to digital formats began in the mid- with the introduction of technology, marking an early step toward digital portability despite initial limitations. launched the line in 1984 with the D-50 model, the world's first portable CD player, which offered superior compared to cassettes but suffered from frequent skipping due to mechanical vibrations during movement. These skip issues persisted through the late , limiting the Discman's practicality for active use, until advancements in the 1990s introduced anti-shock buffering mechanisms. By 1992, models like the D-515 incorporated (ESP), which buffered several seconds of audio to prevent interruptions, enabling more reliable playback during or commuting. Building on CD portability, the early 1990s saw the rise of compressed digital formats designed for smaller media. In 1992, introduced the (MD) player, a magneto-optical disc system that used the (Adaptive TRansform Acoustic Coding) to compress audio without significant quality loss, fitting up to 74 minutes of stereo playback on 2.5-inch rewritable discs protected by a durable cartridge. This format addressed CD skipping through built-in error correction and shock resistance, positioning MiniDisc as a bridge between cassettes and fully solid-state digital players, though its proprietary nature limited widespread adoption outside . The late 1990s accelerated the shift to flash memory-based devices, diminishing reliance on altogether. The , released in 1998 by , became one of the first commercially successful players, featuring 32 MB of internal flash storage—enough for approximately 60 minutes of audio at 128 kbps bitrates—and USB connectivity for easy file transfers from computers. This solid-state design eliminated mechanical vulnerabilities like skipping, signaling the end of cassette dominance in personal stereos. In the early , transitional hybrid models briefly combined analog and digital elements to ease the format shift, such as portable units supporting both cassettes and CDs alongside emerging digital playback. Sony's Network NW-E series, launched in 2001 with models like the NW-E3, represented the full pivot to digital by using for and ATRAC3 files, offering skip-free playback and approximately 5 hours of battery life without physical discs or tapes. The introduction of the Apple in 2001 further accelerated this shift, popularizing players globally.

Cultural and social impact

Changes in music consumption

The introduction of personal stereos marked a profound shift toward personalized music consumption, allowing users to their own playlists on cassette tapes and create individualized soundtracks tailored to daily activities such as , exercising, or studying. This portability transformed music from a communal or stationary experience into a private, on-demand companion, empowering listeners to control their auditory environment in ways previously impossible with vinyl records or home . Personal stereos fueled a boom in music sales during the , particularly for cassette singles, which became affordable and convenient for portable playback. The growing demand was driven by these devices. Mixtapes further amplified this trend, enabling users to compile custom selections from radio broadcasts or albums, which promoted artist discovery through informal sharing among friends and facilitated bootleg circulation of underground tracks. These devices significantly influenced genre development, especially in urban , where personal stereos popularized hip-hop by supporting the creation and dissemination of mixtapes that blended beats, rhymes, and samples for on-the-go listening. Similarly, electronic music gained traction as portable playback allowed enthusiasts to experiment with synth-heavy tracks during mobile activities, contributing to the genre's expansion beyond clubs. By the mid-1980s, personal stereos had achieved widespread adoption among U.S. teens, with alone shipping over 1.65 million units in 1981 and the market expanding rapidly thereafter. This surge correlated with substantial growth in prerecorded tape sales, as cassettes outsold vinyl LPs for the first time in 1984 and maintained dominance through the decade, mirroring the penetration of portable players.

Effects on public and personal space

The advent of personal stereos in the late and enabled users to create individualized "sound bubbles," private auditory environments that shielded them from the cacophony of urban noise and unwanted interruptions in public settings. This isolation offered a of control over one's sensory experience, transforming mundane commutes or walks into personalized soundscapes. However, it also heightened safety risks by impairing awareness of and surroundings, contributing to a rise in pedestrian accidents attributed to distracted listening. In the United States, concerns led to legislative actions, including bans on headphone use while crossing streets in places like Woodbridge, , following incidents such as fatalities involving users oblivious to oncoming vehicles. On the social front, personal stereos altered dynamics in shared public spaces by reducing spontaneous conversations and , fostering perceptions of urban alienation as users appeared detached from communal life. Critics argued this promoted , with listeners prioritizing personal audio over interpersonal engagement, exacerbating feelings of disconnection in crowded cities. Yet, the technology also facilitated social bonds, such as friends splitting headphone cords to share during outings, creating intimate, collaborative moments that bridged isolation. These practices underscored a tension between withdrawal and selective connectivity in everyday interactions. For individuals, personal stereos provided by enhancing concentration and emotional amid shared environments, allowing runners to maintain and or workers to block distractions during commutes. User interviews from the revealed that many reported greater productivity and relaxation, with serving as a tool for mood regulation and focus— for instance, rhythmic tracks invigorated physical activities, while calmer selections alleviated stress in noisy offices or transit. This auditory made public spaces feel more navigable and personally affirming for diverse users. The enduring legacy of personal stereos lies in shaping modern "earbud culture," where private audio immersion in public has become normalized through devices like smartphones and wireless headphones, extending the Walkman's influence on daily mobility. While this evolution democratized access to personalized , it has amplified ongoing debates about social disconnection, as pervasive individual listening potentially erodes collective awareness and serendipitous encounters in urban life.

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  64. https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/animated-chart-of-the-day-recorded-music-sales-by-format-share-1973-to-2022/
  65. https://www.freethink.com/consumer-tech/sony-walkman-technophobia
  66. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13548565211060297
  67. http://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio-webdav/AudioMedia/Readings/Alphabetical/Bull-Investigating_The_Culture.pdf
  68. https://www.routledge.com/Sound-Moves-iPod-Culture-and-Urban-Experience/Bull/p/book/9780415257527
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