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Redout
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A redout occurs when the body experiences a negative g-force sufficient to cause a blood flow from the lower parts of the body to the head. It is the inverse effect of a greyout, where blood flows away from the head to the lower parts of the body. Usually, a redout will only ever be experienced by aircraft pilots, as planes are the most common devices that allow such negative g-forces to be exerted. Redouts are potentially dangerous and can cause retinal damage and hemorrhagic stroke.[1]
According to the predominant theory, the redness appearing in the visual field is not caused by an actual blood flow to the eye, but it is most likely caused by the blood-laden lower eyelid coming into the visual field because of the pull of negative-Gs.[2]
See also
[edit]- Greyout – Visual dimming caused by hypoxia
- Fainting – Transient loss of consciousness and postural tone
- Presyncope – Stage before syncope (fainting)
References
[edit]- ^ Szurovy, Geza; Goulian, Mike (1994). Basic Aerobatics. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-07-062926-4.
- ^ DeHart, Roy L.; Davis, Jeffrey R., eds. (2002). Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781728980.
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Redout
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Physiological Mechanism
Blood Redistribution Under Negative G-Forces
Negative G-forces, denoted as -Gz, represent accelerations directed headward along the body's vertical axis, opposing the typical foot-to-head gravitational pull, with magnitudes commonly ranging from -1g to -5g in high-performance aviation scenarios.[4] These forces arise during maneuvers such as push-overs or inverted flight, where the aircraft's acceleration vector effectively reverses the direction of gravitational influence on bodily fluids.[5] The primary physiological impact stems from altered hydrostatic pressure gradients. In neutral or positive G environments, blood is pooled toward the lower extremities due to gravity; however, under negative G-forces, this gradient inverts, propelling blood cephalad from the legs and torso toward the upper body and head.[4] This fluid shift elevates venous pressure in the cranial vasculature, promoting venous pooling within the head and a consequent rise in intracranial pressure, which can exceed normal levels of 5-13 mmHg.[6] Intraocular pressure similarly increases due to the influx of blood into orbital veins, straining delicate vascular structures.[5] Human tolerance to these forces is limited, with symptoms typically emerging at -2g to -3g sustained for 5-10 seconds, though brief exposures up to -5g for approximately 5 seconds may be endured before incapacitation.[4] Individual variability plays a key role, influenced by cardiovascular conditioning, which modulates vascular compliance and cardiac output during fluid shifts, and hydration status, as dehydration exacerbates reduced blood volume and impairs compensatory mechanisms like peripheral vasodilation.[6] Optimal blood volume supports better pressure regulation, while underlying health factors, such as efficient baroreceptor reflexes, can extend tolerance thresholds.[4] This blood redistribution may briefly contribute to visual disturbances, as explored in subsequent sections.Ocular and Visual Effects
During exposure to negative G-forces, the engorgement of blood vessels in the lower eyelid due to cephalad fluid shifts causes the eyelid to protrude into the visual field, resulting in a characteristic red tint or "red curtain" effect across the vision, known as redout.[7] This mechanism arises from the increased venous pressure in the head, which dilates the conjunctival and scleral vessels, allowing light to pass through the congested tissue and redden the perceived visual scene.[8] The ocular response also involves elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) from the surge in arterial and venous pressures at the head level, potentially leading to visual distortion, blurring, or temporary hemorrhages beyond mere color alteration.[9] Anatomically, this affects the conjunctival vessels primarily, with possible minor subconjunctival or scleral hemorrhages occurring as blood vessels rupture under the strain, though severe damage is rare at moderate levels.[10] Unlike positive G-force-induced impairments such as tunnel vision or grayscale loss, redout manifests as a uniform red hue without peripheral narrowing or desaturation, distinguishing it as a headward hyperemia phenomenon.[7] Experimental studies in aviation medicine indicate onset of initial reddening around -2 to -3 Gz, with full redout and associated blurring typically at -4 Gz or higher, based on human centrifuge tolerance data where venous pressures exceed 100 mm Hg.[8]Occurrences and Causes
In Aviation
In aviation, redout primarily arises from maneuvers that impose negative G-forces on the pilot, such as push-overs into dives, inverted flight, and outside loops commonly performed in aerobatics and fighter jet operations. These actions accelerate the aircraft downward relative to the pilot's body, directing forces from foot to head and pooling blood in the head, which overwhelms the visual field with redness.[11] For instance, an outside-inside vertical eight maneuver can generate up to -5.2 Gz, while a horizontal rolling 360-degree turn may impose -4.0 Gz. The phenomenon was first noted in early 20th-century aerobatic flying, with aerobatics originating as early as 1905 through maneuvers like side-somersaults in gliders, though the term "redout" entered usage in 1942 amid advancing aircraft capabilities. Its incidence increased in high-performance aircraft following World War II, as jet fighters enabled sustained high speeds and aggressive tactics that more readily produced negative loads exceeding -3 Gz.[1] Aircraft-specific factors, including high thrust-to-weight ratios, play a key role by facilitating rapid pitch changes and accelerations during dives or inverted recoveries, amplifying the potential for forces of -3 Gz or greater.[12] Occurrences are documented in military aviation training and airshows, where pilots executing aerobatic sequences risk redout during transitions like push-overs. Centrifuge simulations replicate these conditions, showing that pilots typically experience redout at -5 Gz sustained for 5 seconds, with tolerance limits around -4 Gz for up to 10 seconds in some cases. Statistically, redout is rarer than positive G effects like greyout or blackout, as pilots deliberately limit prolonged negative exposures due to the lower human tolerance—often 2.5 to 3 Gz—and inherent discomfort, prioritizing maneuvers that minimize such risks.[5][13]In Spaceflight and Other High-Performance Activities
In spaceflight, transient negative G-forces arise during spacecraft attitude adjustments or deceleration maneuvers, where accelerations directed toward the head can pool blood in the cranial region, inducing redout. NASA studies indicate that negative Gz forces of -2 to -3 cause symptoms including throbbing headaches, eyelid edema, petechial hemorrhages in the eyes, bradycardia, and redout from conjunctival blood shifts, with tolerance rarely exceeding 6 seconds at -4 to -6 Gz.[4] Astronaut training in centrifuges simulates these conditions to prepare for redout, as reported in high-G exposure protocols for space missions. Redout can occur in spaceflight contexts, particularly during attitude adjustments in spacecraft, where transient negative G-forces cause blood engorgement in the head.Symptoms and Health Risks
Immediate Physiological Symptoms
During a redout episode induced by negative G-forces, individuals commonly experience a range of immediate sensory symptoms due to the rapid pooling of blood in the head and increased intracranial pressure. These include intense headache, facial flushing or swelling from vascular congestion, bulging of the eyes (proptosis), and a pronounced sensation of pressure within the head as venous return is impeded.[10] Accompanying these sensory effects are mild cognitive disturbances, such as disorientation overlaid with the characteristic red hue in the visual field, though full loss of consciousness is rare and typically does not occur unless G-forces exceed -4 to -5 g.[14] Symptoms onset rapidly, generally within seconds of exposure to negative G-forces around -2 to -3 g, and resolve promptly—often within moments—once the forces are neutralized and blood redistribution normalizes.[11][5] The severity and tolerance to these symptoms exhibit significant individual variability, influenced by factors such as age, physical fitness, and prior acclimation through training; for instance, experienced pilots often report milder reactions compared to untrained individuals due to enhanced vascular resilience.[5][15] Physiologically, these effects are marked by increased blood pressure specifically in the cranial region from enhanced arterial inflow and impeded venous drainage.[11]Long-Term Health Complications
Repeated or severe episodes of redout, resulting from sustained negative G-forces, can lead to retinal risks including subconjunctival hemorrhages and potential detachment due to elevated intraocular pressure from blood pooling in the head. Subconjunctival hemorrhages typically occur at 2–3 negative G, causing ocular discomfort and visible redness, though they often resolve spontaneously within weeks without vision impairment. In extreme cases, hyperperfusion of the central retinal artery may cause permanent retinal damage, particularly if pressures exceed tolerance levels during prolonged exposure.[10][14][7] Neurological dangers arise from the abnormally increased cerebral vascular pressures under negative G-forces, which can rupture vessels and precipitate hemorrhagic stroke, especially above -5 G for durations exceeding a few seconds. This risk stems from the rapid influx of blood to the brain, overwhelming vascular integrity and potentially leading to intracranial bleeding. Aerobatic pilots have reported such hemorrhages in the eyes and skin during high negative G maneuvers, highlighting the vulnerability in high-performance aviation.[5][14][7] Cumulative effects from frequent exposure include chronic vascular strain, evidenced by subclinical microvascular alterations in the retina, such as decreased vessel density and enlarged foveal avascular zones, which correlate with total flight hours in military pilots. These changes suggest ongoing strain on ocular vasculature from repeated flight exposures. Research indicates increased risk of such retinal modifications with increasing flight hours.[16][7] Most minor cases of redout-related complications, like subconjunctival hemorrhages, resolve without medical intervention, restoring full function within one month. However, severe instances involving retinal detachment or neurological events necessitate prompt evaluation and treatment to prevent irreversible outcomes. Prognosis is generally favorable for isolated episodes but worsens with recurrent exposure, underscoring the need for monitoring in high-risk professions.[10][14]Prevention and Management
Pilot Training and Behavioral Techniques
Pilot training for redout mitigation emphasizes building physiological tolerance through structured simulations and in-flight practices, focusing on human factors rather than equipment. Centrifuge training exposes pilots to controlled G-forces, primarily positive profiles up to 9g, to familiarize them with symptoms and recovery procedures.[13] This simulation helps pilots develop reflexive responses, as military aviation programs incorporate G exposure to prepare for high-performance maneuvers.[17] For negative G conditions, pilots prioritize avoidance of prolonged exposure, employing gradual control inputs during maneuvers like pushovers to minimize blood pooling in the head. This approach reduces vascular strain during brief exposures, contrasting the muscle tensing used for positive G to maintain cerebral perfusion. Awareness training in flight schools teaches recognition of early redout signs, such as visual reddening or disorientation, enabling pilots to abort maneuvers promptly and restore positive G loading.[18] Behavioral strategies prioritize avoidance of sustained negative G, with pilots instructed to limit exposure durations based on aircraft limits and personal tolerance to prevent symptom onset. Cockpit G-meters provide real-time monitoring of acceleration, allowing pilots to adjust inputs and stay within safe envelopes, typically avoiding sustained levels beyond -2g.[19] Fitness regimens form a core component of preparation, with FAA guidelines recommending regular cardiovascular exercise to enhance vascular resilience and overall G tolerance. Activities such as jogging, swimming, and resistance training improve blood flow regulation and reduce fatigue effects, aligning with military standards that emphasize core and lower-body strength for sustained performance under acceleration stress.[20][18]Protective Equipment and Technological Aids
Protective equipment for negative G-forces primarily consists of restraints designed to prevent injury from blood flow shifts and structural loads, as standard anti-G suits are optimized for positive G environments. In aviation, pilots rely on aircraft design features rather than specialized suits for negative G protection, while spaceflight applications incorporate additional garment-based countermeasures to maintain hemodynamic stability.[21] In modern fighter jets and commercial aircraft, fly-by-wire systems serve as a key technological aid by enforcing automated G-limits to avoid excessive negative loads. These systems monitor acceleration and adjust control surfaces to keep negative G within safe envelopes, typically limiting it to -1 to -2 G depending on the aircraft model, thereby reducing the risk of redout during maneuvers like pushovers or dives. For example, in Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft, full forward sidestick input commands the maximum allowable negative G loading, preventing pilot-induced overloads that could lead to physiological distress. This envelope protection enhances flight safety by maintaining structural integrity and pilot tolerance without requiring manual intervention.[22][23] Aviation helmets and visors provide general head and eye protection but include features that indirectly mitigate negative G effects, such as padded interiors to cushion against sudden movements and tinted or anti-glare visors to improve visibility during visual disturbances like redout. Helmets like the HGU-55/P series used by the U.S. Air Force incorporate lightweight composites and adjustable padding to minimize head flail and pressure on the face, helping to protect against eye strain or minor trauma from acceleration shifts. While not specifically engineered for bulging eyes, the rigid visor structure and foam liners distribute forces evenly, reducing discomfort from facial swelling under negative G.[13] Ongoing research by NASA and the U.S. Air Force focuses on advanced garments to stabilize hemodynamics during spaceflight, where fluid shifts analogous to negative G can occur in certain orbital maneuvers or re-entry phases. The Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG) circulates water through integrated tubes primarily to regulate body temperature, with studies showing reduced heart rates and indirect cardiovascular benefits during positive G re-entry.[25] Negative G restraints, including specialized straps in crew seats, further prevent submarining and abdominal injuries by tethering the pelvis and torso, as demonstrated in dynamic impact tests achieving low injury probabilities (e.g., Brinkley Dynamic Response Criterion values of 0.24–0.34).[21]Related Phenomena
Positive G-Force Effects (Greyout and Blackout)
Positive G-forces, directed from head to foot (+Gz), induce vision impairments known as greyout and blackout, which differ fundamentally from the redout experienced under negative G-forces by involving blood pooling in the lower body rather than congestion in the head.[18] These effects arise during maneuvers that generate sustained acceleration, such as tight turns or abrupt pull-ups in high-performance aircraft, where the cardiovascular system struggles to maintain adequate perfusion to the eyes and brain.[26] Greyout represents a partial loss of vision, typically onsetting between +3g and +5g, characterized initially by color desaturation and a dimming of the visual field, progressing to tunnel vision as peripheral sight fades.[26] This occurs because the increased hydrostatic pressure from positive G-forces causes blood to pool in the abdomen and legs, reducing venous return to the heart and thereby limiting oxygenated blood supply to the retina.[18] The eyes' sensitivity to even brief reductions in retinal blood flow makes greyout the earliest visual warning sign, often accompanied by dizziness but reversible if G-forces are reduced promptly.[18] Blackout follows as a more severe manifestation, involving complete temporary blindness at +4g to +5g or higher, due to profound retinal hypoxia from the sustained lack of perfusion.[26] The mechanism mirrors that of greyout but escalates as the heart's pumping capacity fails to overcome the amplified gravitational gradient, leading to near-total cessation of blood flow to the ocular tissues while consciousness may persist briefly.[18] In fighter aviation, these blackouts commonly emerge during aggressive evasive actions or loop recoveries, where pilots must rely on instrument training to navigate blindly until vision returns, typically within seconds of G-level abatement.[26] Human tolerance to positive G-forces exceeds that for negative G-forces, with unprotected individuals enduring up to +5g before blackout, but trained pilots achieving +9g for short durations (e.g., 10 seconds) using anti-G suits and straining maneuvers that counteract blood pooling.[27] These aids inflate to compress the lower body and enhance intra-thoracic pressure, respectively, thereby improving ocular and cerebral blood flow under load.[26] Factors like hydration and physical conditioning further modulate tolerance, underscoring the need for rigorous preparation in scenarios prone to high +Gz exposure.[18]G-Induced Loss of Consciousness (G-LOC)
G-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) refers to the complete and temporary loss of awareness resulting from exposure to extreme acceleration forces, primarily due to cerebral hypoxia or ischemic overload in the central nervous system caused by disrupted blood flow to the brain. This condition arises when gravitational forces exceed physiological tolerances, leading to a critical reduction in cerebral perfusion and oxygenation. The unconscious state typically lasts 10 to 15 seconds, during which the individual is entirely incapacitated and unresponsive.[28][29][18] In positive G-force scenarios, common in high-performance aircraft maneuvers, G-LOC is more prevalent and occurs at sustained levels above +7 G without countermeasures, as blood is displaced downward from the brain toward the lower extremities, first causing visual blackout before progressing to full unconsciousness.[30][29] Negative G-forces, experienced during inverted flight or push-up maneuvers, rarely induce G-LOC but can do so at thresholds of -6 G or higher, where excessive blood accumulation in the head elevates intracranial pressure, potentially resulting in brain swelling or vascular rupture.[18][31] Upon cessation of the G-stress, recovery from G-LOC begins with the return of basic responsiveness, but pilots often endure a subsequent phase of profound confusion, disorientation, amnesia, and impaired cognitive function lasting several minutes, heightening the danger of mishaps such as uncontrolled aircraft descent or collision.[32][33][29] In U.S. Air Force training programs, particularly centrifuge simulations, G-LOC episodes occur regularly among aircrew, with rigorous safety protocols—including immediate G-relief and medical monitoring—enabling full recovery without long-term harm. Redout, a visual reddening of the field, can serve as a brief precursor in negative G exposures leading toward G-LOC.[29][34]References
- https://ntrs.[nasa](/page/NASA).gov/api/citations/20170005913/downloads/20170005913.pdf