Hubbry Logo
Target shipTarget shipMain
Open search
Target ship
Community hub
Target ship
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Target ship
Target ship
Target ship
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
A Mexican helicopter firing rockets at the former USS Conolly, an obsolete Spruance-class destroyer, during UNITAS Gold in 2009

A target ship is a vessel — typically an obsolete or captured warship — used as a seaborne target for naval gunnery practice or for weapons testing. Targets may be used with the intention of testing effectiveness of specific types of ammunition; or the target ship may be used for an extended period of routine target practice with specialized non-explosive ammunition. The potential consequences of a drifting wreck require careful preparation of the target ship to prevent pollution, or a floating or submerged collision risk for maritime navigation.

Rationale

[edit]
USS America sinking in the Atlantic in 2005 as a naval target. It is the largest warship ever sunk.

Sinking redundant warships is an effective way of testing new weapons and warships in as realistic a manner as possible.

Preparation

[edit]

In order to meet environmental, health, and safety standards, ships now have to be thoroughly cleaned so that all dangerous material and potential contaminants (such as asbestos, refrigerants etc.) are removed. In the event of the vessel becoming an artificial reef, escape exits also have to be created in it, should divers encounter problems.

Notable examples

[edit]
Pacificateur

In September 1819, the French engineer and Army artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans wrote to the Ministry of the Navy to propose a fusing system to fire explosive shells at wooden warships, instead of the usual, solid round shots that were then in general naval use.[Notes 1][1][2] A commission studied the matter, and decided to build two Paixhans howitzers for trial purposes in 1822.

In 1824, the 80-gun ship of the line Pacificateur, made redundant by the Bourbon Restoration, was condemned. She was a Bucentaure-class two-decker of the same type as the French flagship of the Battle of Trafalgar. The two prototypes were fired at her with devastating effect. This led to the adoption of the Paixhans gun in 1827. They were used to great effect at the Battle of San Juan de Ulua, to the interest of British and US observers, who announced the demise of wooden warships and the era of the ironclad.[citation needed]

Baden

In 1921 former German battleship SMS Baden was used by the Royal Navy to test new types of shells. The tests indicated that medium-strength armour could not stop the latest armour-piercing shells, causing the British switch to an all or nothing armour scheme for their new battleships. Baden was then scuttled in Hurd Deep.[3]

Agamemnon and Centurion

The British pre-dreadnought battleship HMS Agamemnon was converted to radio-control in 1920–1921 and used for assessments of the damage that could be caused by aircraft and various calibres of guns. She was replaced in the role by the battleship Centurion in 1926. This followed the work by the secret Distantly Controlled Boat (DCB) Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth started in 1917.[4]

Iowa (BB-4)
USS Iowa (BB-4) under fire, prior to her sinking (March 1923)

After World War I ended, the US Navy and Army did live fire testing of attacking warships from the air. To get the testing as close to wartime conditions as possible, a well known radio engineer, John Hays Hammond Jr., developed the radio control gear to convert USS Iowa (BB-4) into a remote-controlled target ship, a US naval first. She was sunk off the Pacific coast of Panama during fleet exercises by the battleship Mississippi, with members of the United States Congress and the press attending.[5] In the early 1930s the US Navy put considerable effort into the development of remote control ships and fitted the destroyer Stoddert with improved radio controls developed by Lieutenant Commander Boyd R. Alexander, a radio design officer, and the Naval Research Laboratory in Bellevue DC for further testing and evaluation. The evaluation proved so successful that the US Navy moved up their plans for radio controlled warships and in 1932 the obsolete battleship USS Utah and the destroyers Boggs and Kilty were converted.[6]

James Longstreet

A familiar sight for more than fifty years in Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, was SS James Longstreet. This World War II Liberty ship was towed to a sandbar 3.5 miles (5.6 km) off shore in 1944 and was used for bombing practice through the Vietnam War.

Operation Crossroads
Operation Crossroads

Operation Crossroads was a 1946 series of US nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll that used 95 target ships. Some were obsolete US ships, such as USS Nevada, others were ships surrendered by the Axis powers at the end of World War II, such as the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen and the Japanese battleship Nagato.

Torrens

The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) sank HMAS Torrens on June 14, 1999 with a Mk48 wire guided torpedo fired from the Collins-class submarine HMAS Farncomb. Torrens was the last of six Australian River-class destroyer escorts, the others (Derwent, Parramatta, Stuart, Swan and Yarra) having been disposed of previously. Before the sinking Torrens had been thoroughly cleaned of all fuels, oils and potentially environmentally harmful substances. Her gun turret was donated to the South Western City of Albany. Torrens was then towed from Fleet Base West (HMAS Stirling) 90 kilometres (56 mi) out to sea, west of Perth. The submarine fired the torpedo at the stationary target from a submerged position over the horizon.

The sinking of Torrens was a display of firepower that provided some much needed positive publicity for the Collins-class submarines, plagued by numerous technical problems and criticised over troubles with the combat system and noise reduction. Ric Shalders, commander of the Submarine Squadron said "the requirement of new submarine trials, the new need to test war-stock and the availability of the Torrens all came together to produce a very satisfactory result".[7]

As exercises

[edit]
ex-USS Towers (DDG-9), a US Charles F. Adams-class guided missile destroyer, at the end of a SINKEX

The US military term Sink Exercise (SINKEX) is used for the test of a weapons system usually involving a torpedo or missile attack of an unmanned target ship. The US Navy uses SINKEXs to train its sailors on the use of weapons.[8]

This technique is used to dispose of decommissioned warships.[9] The US Navy performs SINKEXs north of Kauaʻi, Hawaii; in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California; and near Puerto Rico.[9]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Target ship

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A target ship is a decommissioned or obsolete vessel, typically a , used by naval forces as a seaborne target for live-fire training exercises, gunnery practice, aerial bombing, and weapons testing to simulate enemy threats in realistic conditions. These ships may be employed statically, towed by support vessels, or modified with radio-control systems to maneuver autonomously, allowing crews to practice precision strikes without risking personnel. The practice serves dual purposes: disposing of surplus or hazardous vessels while providing invaluable combat readiness that cannot be replicated with smaller or simulated targets. The concept of target ships emerged in the early 20th century as navies sought ways to test evolving weaponry and tactics amid rapid technological advancements. In the U.S. Navy, the first such vessel was the USS San Marcos (formerly USS Texas), a pre-dreadnought battleship renamed and deliberately sunk in 1911 off Chesapeake Bay during gunnery trials by the USS New Hampshire; data from its destruction informed future battleship armor designs, including the "all-or-nothing" scheme. Between World Wars I and II, several obsolete warships were converted into crewless "ghost ships" equipped with radio controls, gyrocompasses, and automated systems for remote operation from accompanying vessels like the USS Ohio. Notable examples include the USS Iowa (IX-6), sunk in 1923 after enduring over 300 hits from 14-inch shells, and the USS Utah (AG-16), which served until its loss at Pearl Harbor in 1941. These interwar experiments refined aerial bombing doctrines and gunnery accuracy, preparing forces for modern warfare. In contemporary naval operations, target ships play a central role in sinking exercises (SINKEX), a U.S. program that integrates live-fire drills across gunnery, missiles, torpedoes, and . Decommissioned vessels from the , such as former frigates or destroyers, are selected after environmental inspections to remove hazardous materials like PCBs and , then deployed at least 50 nautical miles offshore in waters over 6,000 feet deep for safe sinking. Exercises like the 2023 Balikatan multi-force SINKEX demonstrated coordinated strikes leading to rapid vessel destruction, enhancing interoperability with allies such as the . In May 2025, a planned U.S.-Philippine SINKEX during Balikatan was aborted when the target ship, the decommissioned corvette BRP , sank prematurely while being towed to the exercise site. efforts, including planned 2026 operations with the Royal , underscore the ongoing evolution of target ship use to counter advanced threats like fast-attack craft. This method not only boosts tactical proficiency but also provides a cost-effective disposal solution for aging hulls.

Definition and History

Definition

A target ship is an obsolete or decommissioned repurposed as a seaborne target for live-fire weapons testing, gunnery practice, or sinking exercises (SINKEX). These vessels provide realistic, full-scale representations of potential adversaries, allowing naval forces to evaluate weapon systems under operational conditions. Key characteristics of target ships include being unmanned to ensure safety during engagements, often fitted with radio-control systems to mimic evasive maneuvers, and structurally modified to absorb initial strikes before ultimately sinking. They are selected from vessels deemed unwanted, hazardous, or costly to maintain, ensuring their disposal serves dual training and environmental compliance purposes. Target ships differ from floating targets, such as non-ship dummies or barges, which lack the size, complexity, and seaworthiness of actual warships, and from artificial reefs, which are intentionally sunk for ecological benefits without prior use in simulations. The concept of using ships as targets emerged in early 19th-century naval experiments, notably those by French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans in , who employed a redundant ship-of-the-line as a test target for shells.

Historical Development

The concept of using ships as targets for naval experimentation emerged in the early , driven by innovations in explosive ordnance. In 1819, French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans proposed a fusing system for explosive shells that could be safely fired from sea-service guns, revolutionizing by enabling high-powered, flat-trajectory firing of incendiary projectiles against wooden hulls. This idea was tested in 1824 at , where one Paixhans shell gun fired 16 shells at the obsolete 80-gun Pacificateur, demolishing and sinking the vessel in a brief bombardment and demonstrating the devastating potential of shell fire. The success prompted rapid adoption by the and influenced other powers, marking a doctrinal shift from solid-shot broadsides to explosive ordnance in . Advancements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries focused on controlled, realistic training targets to simulate enemy maneuvers. The introduction of radio-controlled vessels enabled safer, more dynamic gunnery practice; a key milestone was the 1923 conversion of the decommissioned U.S. USS Iowa (BB-4) into the radio-controlled target ship Coast Battleship No. 4 (IX-6), which was used in Fleet gunnery exercises off on March 22, where it sustained heavy damage from gunfire before sinking. This represented the first U.S. employment of such technology, allowing crews to hone accuracy against a moving, ship-sized target without risking lives, and set the stage for broader integration of remote control in naval training. World War II saw a significant expansion in target ship usage due to surplus fleets from pre-war disarmament treaties and rapid wartime production, providing ample obsolete vessels for intensive training. The U.S. Navy employed these hulks, such as the ex-battleship Utah, for gunnery, torpedo, and bombing practice, with destroyers like Lamberton and Boggs simulating agile threats in live-fire scenarios. This surge addressed the need for realistic combat preparation amid escalating threats, though actual sinkings were limited to preserve resources for the war effort. Similar practices were adopted by other navies, such as the Royal Navy's use of HMS Agamemnon as a radio-controlled target in the early 1920s. Postwar developments integrated target ships into nuclear weapons testing, exemplified by Operation Crossroads in 1946 at Bikini Atoll, where 95 vessels— including surplus warships, submarines, and captured German and Japanese ships—were arrayed as targets to assess blast and radiation effects on naval assets. The tests, comprising air-dropped (Able) and underwater (Baker) detonations of 23-kiloton devices, revealed severe contamination issues. From the onward, target ship practices evolved into standardized sinking exercises (SINKEX) to validate advanced missiles, torpedoes, and multi-domain strikes, reflecting doctrinal emphasis on precision and survivability. The U.S. increased routine SINKEX during the late amid fleet expansion, conducting live-fire drills using decommissioned hulls to enhance , such as multi-axis strikes in the Operating Area. This shift prioritized environmental compliance and international regulations while maintaining high-fidelity training against realistic maritime threats.

Purpose and Rationale

Military Training Applications

Target ships play a crucial role in naval training by simulating enemy vessels during gunnery, torpedo, and missile drills, allowing crews to practice accuracy, targeting, and coordination in realistic at-sea conditions. These exercises enable sailors to engage moving targets with live munitions, honing skills in weapon employment and tactical maneuvering without the constraints of simulated environments. For instance, in multi-domain scenarios, surface ships, submarines, and aircraft coordinate strikes on a single target ship to replicate combat against adversarial fleets. The primary benefits of using target ships include enhanced crew proficiency in live-fire settings, where participants gain hands-on experience in high-stakes operations that build confidence and operational tempo. By employing decommissioned vessels, these drills minimize risks to manned ships and personnel, providing a safe proxy for testing procedures while indirectly informing damage control techniques through observed structural responses. Such fosters among units, as seen in exercises where diverse platforms—air, surface, and subsurface—deliver synchronized attacks on the target to simulate dynamics. The application of target ships in training has evolved significantly from World War II-era fleet exercises, where radio-controlled obsolete warships like the USS Utah served as maneuvering targets for gunnery and bombing practice, to contemporary joint operations. In the modern U.S. Navy, this tradition continues through SINKEX events, such as those integrated into the biennial Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise off and the multinational UNITAS 2025 exercise, which featured a SINKEX involving forces from multiple nations to enhance collective maritime capabilities. These evolutions emphasize integrated warfare, with exercises often involving over a dozen nations and platforms to prepare for complex peer conflicts.

Weapons Testing and Evaluation

Target ships serve a critical role in the realistic assessment of naval munitions, including torpedoes, anti-ship missiles such as the and , and artillery shells, by providing full-scale representations of vessel hulls and structures under live-fire conditions. These evaluations occur primarily during Sinking Exercises (SINKEX), where decommissioned ships are subjected to coordinated strikes from air, surface, and subsurface platforms to measure weapons lethality and ship survivability. The primary function is to validate the performance of new or upgraded systems against actual maritime targets, offering data unattainable through simulations or subscale models. Evaluation processes involve detailed pre-strike preparations, such as instrumenting the target with sensors for monitoring structural , followed by post-strike of patterns, including hull penetration, compartment flooding, and fragmentation effects. Inspections by naval engineers and marine specialists assess the extent of structural deformation and material failure, informing iterative improvements in munition design, configurations, and targeting algorithms. For instance, from onboard sensors captures on impact dynamics during strikes, enabling quantitative analysis of factors like retention and armor defeat mechanisms. Historically, the 1921 gunnery trials against the captured German battleship , conducted by the monitor HMS Terror, demonstrated the limitations of early armor-piercing shells, which often shattered upon impacting thick cemented armor rather than penetrating, prompting refinements in British naval ordnance design. Similarly, the 2005 deliberate sinking of the decommissioned aircraft carrier over four weeks of sustained attacks revealed key vulnerabilities in supercarrier construction, such as progressive flooding and fire propagation, which influenced subsequent enhancements in damage control and compartmentalization for U.S. carrier classes. In modern applications, SINKEX integrates advanced sensors and to evaluate precision-guided and long-range precision munitions, including Block II+ missiles tested against moving targets for GPS-enhanced accuracy and variants for anti-ship lethality. These exercises provide empirical data on such systems, supporting the development of resilient hull designs and countermeasure integrations for future naval platforms.

Preparation Methods

Hazardous Material Removal

The hazardous material removal process for target ships, also known as hulks prepared for sinking exercises (SINKEX), involves systematic to prevent environmental pollution during live-fire training. This targets legacy pollutants accumulated over the vessel's service life, ensuring compliance with federal regulations before ocean disposal. The U.S. conducts these preparations in coordination with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), focusing on removing substances that could leach into marine ecosystems upon submersion. Key hazards identified for extraction include insulation, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in electrical equipment and paints, oils and fuels in tanks and reservoirs, refrigerants such as fluorocarbons and mercury-containing devices, and remnants of munitions or ordnance. , prevalent in pre-1980s ships, is abated through encapsulation or physical removal to avoid fiber release. PCBs, banned in but lingering in older vessels, are prioritized due to their bioaccumulative , with liquid forms drained and solid components dismantled. products are flushed from bilges, engines, and piping systems, while refrigerants are recovered from and units to prevent and heavy metal contamination. Munitions remnants, including or explosive residues, are demilitarized to eliminate risks and ordnance dispersal. These extractions follow a comprehensive to map all potential sources, preventing oversight of hidden compartments. Regulatory drivers for these protocols originated in the 1970s with the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972, which prohibits ocean dumping of materials harmful to human health or the environment; the EPA issued its first general permit for Navy SINKEX transports in 1977, mandating hazardous material abatement. These requirements expanded in the post-1990s era amid investigations into WWII-era wrecks, which revealed persistent PCB and heavy metal contamination at sites like , prompting stricter Navy-EPA best management practices for vessel preparation. The protocols align with the Toxic Substances Control Act for PCBs and for handling, emphasizing "maximum extent practicable" removal to minimize ecological risks. The step-by-step process begins with an inventory audit, where certified environmental specialists survey the ship to catalog all hazardous materials using historical records, sampling, and non-destructive testing. This is followed by specialized disassembly, including draining and neutralizing liquids, cutting out PCB-laden components for or land disposal, and abating through wet removal or in controlled facilities. Oils and fuels undergo hot washing and , while refrigerants are vented via certified recovery systems. Munitions remnants are inspected and neutralized by explosive ordnance disposal teams. The process concludes with : a thorough by qualified marine chemists and EPA-authorized personnel verifies compliance, issuing a clearance certificate before towing to the exercise site. For instance, the ex-USS (LHA-1) underwent this regimen prior to its 2024 sinking, with all identified hazards removed per EPA guidelines, and the ex-USS Simpson (FFG-56) followed similar procedures before its sinking during UNITAS 2025. Preparation timelines typically span 6-12 months, depending on ship size and complexity, with costs ranging from several million dollars per vessel due to labor, disposal fees, and regulatory oversight. The ex-USS Tarawa's decontamination, starting post-stricken in April 2024 and culminating in its July sinking during RIMPAC, exemplified accelerated efforts but still incurred significant expenses for comprehensive abatement. These factors underscore the resource-intensive nature of ensuring environmental safety in military training.

Structural and Safety Modifications

Target ships undergo specific structural adaptations to enable safe and effective unmanned operation during naval exercises, ensuring they can withstand initial impacts while facilitating controlled sinking. These modifications typically follow rigorous environmental and safety protocols established by the and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Prior to structural changes, hazardous materials such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), products, and other pollutants are removed from the vessel to comply with federal regulations under the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act. To support unmanned operation, target ships are equipped with systems for remote monitoring and positioning. In early examples, such as the USS Iowa (BB-4), the vessel was converted in 1921 into the U.S. Navy's first radio-controlled target ship, allowing remote steering and maneuverability during fleet gunnery practice off the coast of in 1923, where it was ultimately sunk by gunfire from USS Mississippi (BB-41). Modern SINKEX preparations emphasize passive unmanned configurations, where decommissioned ships are towed to the exercise area, anchored, or permitted to drift without onboard crew, relying on pre-positioned tracking devices for location monitoring during the event. If live-fire attacks do not result in sinking, pre-installed charges are detonated to ensure the vessel submerges completely, preventing prolonged surface hazards. All modifications undergo thorough to verify structural integrity and compliance with operational safety standards. In for sinking, particularly to promote post-exercise utility as artificial reefs, large openings are cut into the hull and watertight bulkheads according to U.S. Navy and EPA best management practices established following the for Fiscal Year 2004. These openings facilitate rapid flooding and controlled submersion while creating entry points for to form habitats on the seafloor. This practice has been standard for vessel sinkings since the early , balancing exercise objectives with ecological considerations. Note that not all SINKEX vessels are intentionally sunk as reefs. Contemporary adaptations in the incorporate drone technologies to enhance exercise realism and control. During SINKEX events, unmanned aerial and surface drones are integrated for targeting and surveillance of the target ship, as demonstrated in a 2021 U.S. Navy demonstration where a drone swarm successfully struck and contributed to the destruction of a surface vessel, simulating peer adversary tactics. These integrations allow for dynamic without risking manned assets, evolving from historical radio controls to advanced autonomous systems.

Operational Use in Exercises

Sinking Exercise Procedures

Sinking exercises, commonly known as SINKEX, follow a structured sequence to ensure safe and effective execution during live-fire training. The process begins with target positioning, where the decommissioned vessel is towed to a designated offshore range, typically at least 50 nautical miles from land and in waters exceeding 6,000 feet deep to comply with environmental regulations. This positioning allows for realistic simulation of maritime threats while minimizing risks to coastal areas and routes. Prior to engagement, the area is surveyed for , vessels, and to confirm . The exercise progresses through phased strikes, starting with initial engagements using lower-yield ordnance such as gunnery fire and torpedoes to assess targeting accuracy and simulate early-phase scenarios. These are followed by escalation to heavier munitions, including missiles and aerial bombs, which are fired in coordinated volleys to overwhelm the target and replicate multi-domain attacks. For instance, during the 2024 RIMPAC exercise, the ex-USS was struck by a variety of munitions, including advanced Quicksink weapons from U.S. B-2 bombers, alongside anti-ship missiles from surface vessels and aircraft operated by U.S. and partner forces, culminating in the ship's sinking after multiple hits. If the vessel remains afloat after primary strikes, final may occur via explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams deploying demolition charges to ensure complete submersion. Participant roles emphasize seamless coordination across naval assets, with surface ships, submarines, and operating under a command to execute strikes from various vectors. Spotters, often embedded in or on support vessels, provide real-time hit confirmation through visual observation and data, enabling adjustments during the exercise. This multi-national integration, as seen in joint operations, enhances and tactical proficiency. SINKEX events can last from several hours to a few days and involve a varying number of munitions depending on the exercise scale and objectives. Larger multinational drills like RIMPAC often concentrate the activity into a single intensive day. Emergency protocols include abort criteria triggered by adverse weather, equipment malfunctions, or unexpected hazards, with the exercise halted to prioritize safety. Post-sinking, debris monitoring via and surface surveys ensures the site poses no ongoing navigation risks, with any floating remnants recovered or marked.

Regulatory and Logistical Frameworks

The U.S. Navy's SINKEX program operates under strict regulatory oversight from the (NAVSEA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ensuring compliance with environmental and safety standards prior to vessel disposal at sea. NAVSEA's Inactive Ships Program, through its SEA 21I office, manages the preparation and provision of decommissioned vessels for exercises, including inspections by qualified marine chemists to verify removal of hazardous materials such as PCBs, petroleum products, and floatable debris. The EPA issues a general permit under the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) at 40 C.F.R. § 229.2, authorizing the transport and ocean disposal of target vessels while mandating conditions like sinking in depths of at least 1,000 fathoms (6,000 feet) and at least 50 nautical miles from land to minimize environmental risks. Internationally, SINKEX exercises require coordination with host nations when conducted in foreign waters or near territorial seas, as seen in the annual exercises with the , where U.S. and Philippine forces jointly plan and execute sinkings of decommissioned vessels to align with bilateral defense agreements. These operations adhere to derived from the United Nations Convention on the (UNCLOS), ensuring activities occur in to respect coastal state sovereignty and navigational freedoms on the high seas. Logistically, vessels are selected from the Navy's excess fleet of decommissioned ships or the Maritime Administration's , prioritizing those suitable for survivability testing or multi-national training without retention value. Transport to designated ranges, such as those off or , typically involves towing by naval tugs, though larger hulls may use heavy-lift vessels for stability during long-distance relocation. Budgeting falls under broader training and readiness appropriations, with costs covering , transport, and post-exercise monitoring integrated into annual operations and funds.

Notable Examples

Early and Pre-WWII Instances

One of the earliest documented uses of a target ship occurred in 1824 when the conducted trials with the innovative against the obsolete 80-gun Pacificateur at Brest. Developed by Henri-Joseph Paixhans, this was the first naval gun specifically designed to fire explosive shells, and the test involved bombarding the stationary vessel with an 80-pounder shell gun, resulting in severe structural damage to its wooden hull from just 16 shells. The dramatic success of the demonstration, which caused the Pacificateur to break up rapidly, prompted the rapid adoption of shell-firing artillery across the French fleet by 1827 and spurred similar innovations in other navies worldwide. The United States marked a technological milestone in 1923 with the radio-controlled sinking of the pre-dreadnought battleship USS Iowa (BB-4) during Fleet Problem I off the Panama Canal Zone. Decommissioned in 1919 and reclassified as the experimental target ship IX-6, Iowa was equipped with remote steering and propulsion controls, enabling her to maneuver realistically without a crew during live-fire exercises. On March 22, 1923, she was struck by multiple salvos from the battleship USS Mississippi (BB-41), leading to her rapid sinking and validating the feasibility of unmanned, remotely operated targets for gunnery training. This demonstration underscored the safety and tactical advantages of radio control in naval practice, paving the way for broader adoption of such systems in U.S. fleet exercises. Post-World War I, the captured German battleship served as a critical target for British shell impact evaluations in 1921, providing insights into armor vulnerabilities under realistic combat conditions. Scuttled by her crew at in 1919 but subsequently refloated, Baden was prepared by removing coal and armor from one side to induce a list, simulating the effects of on her 13.8-inch armored belt during trials east of the Horse Tail Bank. On November 18, 1921, she was sunk by 15-inch armor-piercing shells from the monitors HMS Terror and after two rounds of firing, with the tests revealing key data on penetration mechanics and shell bursting against heavy German-style armor. These experiments significantly shaped interwar naval armor standards, informing British designs for improved against high-velocity impacts in ships like the Nelson class.

WWII and Cold War Era

During and the immediate postwar period, target ships played a critical role in evaluating the devastating effects of emerging nuclear weapons on naval fleets. The most prominent example was , a series of nuclear tests conducted by the at in 1946, involving a target array of approximately 95 ships positioned in the lagoon to simulate a wartime naval formation. These vessels included decommissioned battleships such as the USS Nevada (BB-36) and USS Arkansas (BB-33), alongside carriers, cruisers, destroyers, and submarines, with animals placed aboard to study biological effects of radiation. The operation's Able test on July 1, 1946, featured an air-dropped plutonium implosion device yielding 21 kilotons, which detonated 520 feet above the water and immediately sank five target ships despite missing the intended aim point by over 2,100 feet. The subsequent Baker test on July 25, 1946, involved an underwater detonation at 90 feet depth, producing a massive radioactive plume that contaminated much of the fleet and led to eight additional immediate sinkings, including the USS Arkansas, which capsized due to shockwave damage, and severe structural compromise to the USS Nevada. Overall, the tests resulted in the loss of 14 ships directly from the blasts, with many survivors requiring extensive decontamination efforts that were ultimately abandoned due to persistent radioactivity, turning them into long-term hazards. Long-term radiation studies from informed naval doctrine on nuclear survivability, revealing how underwater bursts could render entire fleets inoperable through fallout and base surge effects, influencing strategies for dispersed operations. Beyond nuclear trials, conventional target ships supported ongoing weapons practice during and after the war. The SS , a launched in 1943, exemplifies repeated use in and aerial gunnery exercises; after brief wartime service, it was stripped and anchored in shallow waters off , in starting in 1945, where U.S. Navy aircraft targeted it with bombs and runs until the early 1970s. Grounded on a to facilitate low-altitude attacks, the vessel gradually settled into 20 feet of water, its rusting hulk serving as a visible landmark for training until fully submerged by natural erosion and accumulated damage. As the intensified, the U.S. Navy expanded target ship programs to validate new technologies, frequently employing decommissioned destroyers in live-fire exercises from the 1950s through the 1970s. These ex-warships, often from World War II-era classes like the Gearing or Fletcher, were modified for remote control and towed to open ocean ranges off or for tests of systems such as the Terrier surface-to-air and early anti-ship variants. Such sinkings, conducted under controlled SINKEX protocols, demonstrated accuracy and warhead lethality against maneuvering targets, with representative cases including the of surplus destroyers like the (DDG-1) in 1970 after its decommissioning in 1969 and role in guided- evaluations. This practice ensured operational readiness amid escalating naval arms races, prioritizing expendable hulls to refine tactics without risking active fleet assets.

Post-2000 Modern Cases

In the early 2000s, the conducted one of the most extensive target ship sinkings to evaluate the survivability of large warships against modern weaponry. The decommissioned USS America (CV-66), a Kitty Hawk-class vessel, underwent a four-week live-fire endurance test beginning in early May 2005, approximately 200 miles southeast of , . During this period, the ship was subjected to a barrage of bombs, missiles, and torpedoes from , ships, and to assess structural integrity under repeated attacks. On May 14, 2005, USS America finally sank after withstanding significant damage, marking it as the largest warship ever deliberately sunk by the U.S. Navy. Although occurring just prior to 2000, the preparation and sinking of the Australian frigate HMAS Torrens (DE 53) exemplified transitional practices into the new millennium, with decommissioning in 1998 followed by detailed hazard removal and modifications for use as a target. On June 14, 1999, during combat systems trials, the was sunk by a live Mark 48 Mod 4 torpedo fired from the Collins-class submarine HMAS Farncomb, approximately 100 km off the coast of in the . The exercise demonstrated the torpedo's effectiveness in breaking the ship's , with the vessel rapidly capsizing and sinking within minutes. In 2024, multinational forces participating in the Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise off conducted two high-profile sinking exercises (SINKEX) amid heightened tensions. The decommissioned USS Dubuque (LPD 8) was sunk on July 11, 2024, in waters over 15,000 feet deep, approximately 50 nautical miles north of Kauai, after strikes from anti-ship missiles including the and , launched by U.S. and allied aircraft and vessels. This was followed by the sinking of the Iwo Jima-class USS Tarawa (LHA 1) on July 19, 2024, in the same area, targeted by a combination of precision-guided munitions, torpedoes, and missiles to test and weapon efficacy in scenarios reflecting potential peer conflicts. These operations involved over 25 nations and underscored advancements in joint capabilities. A notable unintended incident occurred in 2025 during preparations for joint U.S.-Philippine exercises. The World War II-era BRP (PS-19), decommissioned and prepped as a target for the maritime strike exercise, sank accidentally on May 5, 2025, while being towed to the exercise site near the Luzon Strait. The 80-year-old vessel, originally commissioned in 1944, took on water and capsized approximately 7:20 a.m. due to structural and rough seas, just hours before it was scheduled for live-fire destruction. This event highlighted the challenges and risks associated with transporting aging target ships for modern drills.

Environmental and Broader Impacts

Ecological Effects and Mitigation

The sinking of target ships during naval exercises can release such as lead, mercury, and from paints, hull coatings, and structural components into the marine environment, potentially leading to in food chains and toxicity to marine organisms. (UXO) remaining on or near the wrecks poses additional risks, as corroding munitions leach explosives like TNT and other toxic substances, contributing to localized contamination that persists for decades. derived from degrading ship paints, which often contain biocidal additives and , further exacerbate pollution by entering the and being ingested by , fish, and larger predators, disrupting ecosystems through physical and chemical effects. Long-term ecological consequences are evident in sites like , where nuclear tests involving target ships during in 1946 resulted in that remains significant as of 2025, rendering parts of the lagoon highly radioactive and unsuitable for habitation or extensive marine use. To mitigate these impacts, the U.S. Navy conducts pre-sinking preparations under EPA general permits for the SINKEX program, which require thorough removal of hazardous materials including PCBs, , and oils to minimize residual pollutants, with agreements limiting PCBs to no more than 100 pounds per vessel. Site selection plays a critical role, with most sinkings occurring in waters deeper than 6,000 feet (about 1,800 meters) to promote rapid dilution and sedimentation of contaminants, reducing exposure to coastal and shallow-water ecosystems. Despite these risks, many sunk target ships transform into artificial reefs that enhance by providing complex habitats for , , and ; for instance, the , intentionally sunk off , in 2006 at a depth of 212 feet, has supported rapid coral colonization by species like staghorn and brain corals, attracting diverse including sea turtles and crustaceans while alleviating pressure on nearby natural reefs. In the 2020s, emerging concerns include the release of from remnants during sinkings, a persistent contaminant that can disrupt function in marine species and accumulate in sediments, prompting calls for enhanced scrutiny in naval exercises. The Department of Defense has incorporated into its broader environmental strategies, including ongoing monitoring of sunk vessel sites to assess and respond to contamination levels through periodic sampling and evaluations.

Cultural and Strategic Legacy

Target ships have profoundly influenced modern naval doctrine, particularly in shaping anti-ship warfare tactics and assessments of vessel resilience. The 2005 sinking exercise of the decommissioned , which required over four weeks and extensive ordnance to submerge, provided critical data on carrier survivability against sustained attacks, informing debates on the vulnerability of large surface combatants to and explosive threats. This exercise highlighted design improvements in compartmentalization and damage control, influencing subsequent strategies for protecting high-value assets like supercarriers in peer conflicts. Culturally, target ships embody naval power projection and the evolution of military might, serving as tangible symbols of technological dominance and strategic experimentation. The wrecks from , the 1946 nuclear tests at , have become iconic dive sites, attracting global interest as underwater museums that preserve unadulterated records of atomic-era naval history. These 21 accessible vessels, including WWII veterans like USS Saratoga and HIJMS Nagato, offer divers immersive encounters with the legacy of nuclear testing, fostering public on the human and strategic costs of such operations while symbolizing the shift to post-World War II deterrence paradigms. In recent decades, the use of physical target ships has declined due to escalating costs, environmental regulations, and advancements in alternatives, marking a strategic pivot toward sustainable training methods. Amendments to Convention and Protocol, including stricter 2006 protocols on ocean dumping, have imposed rigorous remediation requirements for vessels used in sinking exercises (SINKEX), compelling the U.S. Navy to limit such practices to comply with international pollution prevention standards. Post-2010s, navies have increasingly adopted virtual simulations and unmanned drone targets for anti-ship training, reducing reliance on live-fire sinkings while enhancing realism through systems like the U.S. Navy's program, which deploys autonomous surface vessels as expendable proxies. This shift favors "green disposal" options, such as scrapping or conversion, over ocean disposal. Since 1999, the U.S. Navy has conducted over 100 SINKEX events, sinking more than 100 decommissioned vessels to test weapons lethality and tactics, though the proportion of disposals via SINKEX peaked at 65% between 2000 and 2010 before trending downward amid regulatory and budgetary pressures. These exercises underscore the enduring tactical value of target ships in validating anti-access/area-denial capabilities, yet their legacy now emphasizes innovation in low-impact alternatives to sustain naval readiness without environmental trade-offs.

References

  1. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2018/april/historic-ships-old-hoodoo-target-ship
  2. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2014/march/crewless-ghost-ships-interwar-navy
  3. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/national-defense-reserve-fleet/ship-disposal-program/sinkex
  4. https://news.usni.org/2023/04/26/u-s-filipino-troops-sink-decommissioned-warship-in-a-first-for-balikatan-exercise
  5. https://edition.cnn.com/2025/05/06/asia/us-philippines-exercise-target-ship-sinks-intl-hnk-ml
  6. https://www.navylookout.com/royal-navy-and-us-navy-plan-to-sink-vessel-in-live-firing-exercise-next-year/
  7. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history/2024/december/shot-shell-general-paixhans-revolutionary-artillery
  8. https://www.marinersmuseum.org/2022/12/the-evolution-of-naval-ordnance-1820-1866/
  9. https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/photography/us-navy-ships/battleships/iowa-bb-4/NH-96027.html
  10. http://www.navweaps.com/index_inro/INRO_BB-Gunnery.php
  11. https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/art/exhibits/conflicts-and-operations/operation-crossroads-bikini-atoll.html
  12. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/2022-05/2022-05-12_history.com-7_surprising_facts_about_the_nuclear_bomb_tests_at_bikini_atoll.pdf
  13. https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/2736525/us-forces-conduct-sinking-exercise/
  14. https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Home/Team-Ships/NAVSEA-21/Inactive-Ships/SINKEX/
  15. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/sinkex.htm
  16. https://news.usni.org/2024/07/23/u-s-partners-experiment-with-new-weapon-systems-during-rimpac-2024-sinkex
  17. https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3106575/multinational-partners-conducted-a-multi-domain-sinking-exercise/
  18. https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/4305132/unitas-2025-kicks-off-at-naval-station-mayport/
  19. https://www.aetc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3100872/mq-9-makes-its-debut-at-rimpac-sinkex-2022/
  20. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstreams/dd726791-3c3f-5ece-82c3-4f8e87548896/download
  21. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/English-Edition-Archives/March-April-2025/Army-Fires/
  22. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA108002.pdf
  23. https://www.epa.gov/marine-protection-permitting/transport-target-vessels-ocean-disposal
  24. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/artificialreefguidance.pdf
  25. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/sites/marad.dot.gov/files/docs/national-defense/ship-disposal-program/2751/annual-ship-disposal-report-2015.pdf
  26. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/ocean-dumping/transport-target-vessels-ocean-disposal
  27. https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=wjelp
  28. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-14-223.pdf
  29. https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3846516/us-and-partner-nations-conduct-multiple-sinkexs-as-part-of-rimpac-2024/
  30. https://www.newsweek.com/video-shows-us-navy-sinking-warship-10874808
  31. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/sites/marad.dot.gov/files/docs/about-us/foia/4191/shipdispcomprehensivemgmntplan.pdf
  32. https://maritime-executive.com/article/u-s-navy-picks-a-full-size-amphib-for-high-profile-sinking-exercise
  33. https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/photography/us-navy-ships/battleships/iowa-bb-4.html
  34. https://www.navysite.de/navy/sinkex/index.html
  35. https://news.usni.org/2025/02/19/ss-united-states-leaves-philadelphia-berthing-bound-for-alabama-before-planned-sinking
  36. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2021/04/30/us-navy-destroys-target-with-drone-swarm---and-sends-a-message-to-china/
  37. https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3095459/us-and-partner-nations-conduct-sinkex-as-part-of-rimpac-2022/
  38. https://www.cpf.navy.mil/Newsroom/News/Article/3847255/us-and-partner-nations-conduct-multiple-sinkexs-as-part-of-rimpac-2024/
  39. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/sinkex_determination_and_agreement_signed.pdf
  40. https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/05/philippines-and-partners-conduct-successful-sinkex-in-south-china-sea/
  41. https://www.pacom.mil/Media/News/News-Article-View/Article/3847697/us-and-partner-nations-conduct-multiple-sinkexs-as-part-of-rimpac-2024/
  42. https://shipscribe.com/marvap/intro2.html
  43. https://www.kbismarck.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=162
  44. https://www.quora.com/Did-the-British-copy-anything-from-the-test-results-gathered-from-the-captured-German-battleship-Baden
  45. https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/cold-war/crossroads.html
  46. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945-present/crossroads.htm
  47. https://www.mass.gov/info-details/james-longstreet
  48. https://www.capecodtimes.com/story/news/2014/10/10/5-things-to-know-about/36022589007/
  49. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/the-navy-in-the-cold-war-era-1945-1991.html
  50. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/g/gyatt.html
  51. https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/it-took-4-weeks-what-sinking-us-navy-aircraft-carrier-looks-207351
  52. https://www.amusingplanet.com/2010/06/sinking-of-decommissioned-ships.html
  53. https://history.fremantle.wa.gov.au/nodes/view/45179
  54. https://gcaptain.com/rimpac-2024-decommissioned-navy-ships-sunk-in-sinkex-drills/
  55. https://www.cnn.com/2025/05/06/asia/us-philippines-exercise-target-ship-sinks-intl-hnk-ml
  56. https://www.twz.com/sea/target-ship-sinks-before-it-can-be-pummeled-with-weapons-for-pacific-exercise
  57. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/october/world-war-shipwrecks-leaking-pollutants-into-worlds-oceans.html
  58. https://www.geomar.de/en/discover/munitions-in-the-sea
  59. https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/the-hidden-risks-of-ship-paint-microplastics-in-marine-environments
  60. https://www.downwinders.com/2025/08/08/how-bikini-atoll-nuclear-testing-has-impacted-generations/
  61. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/2014_sinkex_agreement_508.pdf
  62. https://myfwc.com/fishing/saltwater/artificial-reefs/oriskany/
  63. https://www.florida-scubadiving.com/uss-oriskany-marine-life-coral-development-study-on-artificial-reef/
  64. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/PHS/PHS.aspx?phsid=892&toxid=181
  65. https://www.sustainability.gov/pdfs/dod-2024-cap.pdf
  66. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2017/may/too-big-sink
  67. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8219&context=nwc-review
  68. https://npshistory.com/series/archeology/scrc/37/report.pdf
  69. https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/swcrc/37/chap4.htm
  70. https://www.epa.gov/marine-protection-permitting/london-convention-and-london-protocol-international-treaties-prevent
  71. https://taskandpurpose.com/tech-tactics/navy-darpa-drone-ships/
  72. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/oceans/pdfs/SINKEX_Petition_to_EPA_April_2012.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.