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Title page of the libretto, London 1738

Serse (Italian pronunciation: [ˈsɛrse]; English title: Xerxes; HWV 40) is an opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in London on 15 April 1738. The Italian libretto was adapted by an unknown hand from that by Silvio Stampiglia (1664–1725) for an earlier opera of the same name by Giovanni Bononcini in 1694. Stampiglia's libretto was itself based on one by Nicolò Minato (ca.1627–1698) that was set by Francesco Cavalli in 1654. The opera is set in Persia (modern-day Iran) about 470 BC and is very loosely based upon Xerxes I of Persia. Serse, originally sung by a mezzo-soprano castrato, is now usually performed by a female mezzo-soprano or countertenor.

The opening aria, "Ombra mai fu", sung by Xerxes to a plane tree (Platanus orientalis), is set to one of Handel's best-known melodies, and is often known as Handel's "Largo" (despite being marked "larghetto" in the score).

Composition history

[edit]

In late 1737 the King's Theatre, London, commissioned Handel to write two new operas. The first, Faramondo, was premiered on 3 January 1738. By this time, Handel had already begun work on Serse. The first act was composed between 26 December 1737 and 9 January 1738, the second was ready by 25 January, the third by 6 February, and Handel put the finishing touches to the score on 14 February. Serse was first performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket on 15 April 1738.[1]

George Frideric Handel, portrayed by Balthasar Denner in the 1720s

The first production was a complete failure.[2] The audience may have been confused by the innovative nature of the work. Unlike his other operas for London, Handel included comic (buffo) elements in Serse. Although this had been typical for 17th-century Venetian works such as Cavalli's original setting of the libretto, by the 1730s an opera seria was expected to be wholly serious, with no mixing of the genres of tragedy and comedy or high and low class characters. The musicologist Charles Burney later took Serse to task for violating decorum in this way, writing: "I have not been able to discover the author of the words of this drama: but it is one of the worst Handel ever set to Music: for besides feeble writing, there is a mixture of tragic-comedy and buffoonery in it, which Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio had banished from serious opera."[3] Another unusual aspect of Serse is the number of short, one-part arias, when a typical opera seria of Handel's time was almost wholly made up of long, three-part da capo arias. This feature particularly struck the Earl of Shaftesbury, who attended the premiere and admired the opera. He noted "the airs too, for brevity's sake, as the opera would otherwise be too long [,] fall without any recitativ' intervening from one into another[,] that tis difficult to understand till it comes by frequent hearing to be well known. My own judgment is that it is a capital opera notwithstanding tis called a ballad one."[3] It is likely that Handel had been influenced, both as regards the comedy and the absence of da capo arias, by the success in London of ballad operas such as The Beggar's Opera and John Frederick Lampe's The Dragon of Wantley, the latter of which was visited by Handel.[4]

Performance history

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18th-century painting of the King's Theatre, London, and adjacent buildings
London King's Theatre Haymarket, where Serse was first performed

Serse disappeared from the stage for almost two hundred years. It enjoyed its first modern revival in Göttingen on 5 July 1924 in a version by Oskar Hagen. By 1926 this version had been staged at least 90 times in 15 German cities. Serse's success has continued.[5] According to Winton Dean, Serse is Handel's most popular opera with modern audiences after Giulio Cesare.[6] The very features which 18th-century listeners found so disconcerting – the shortness of the arias and the admixture of comedy – may account for its appeal to the 20th and the 21st centuries.[7]

Serse was produced for the stage at the La Scala Theater in Milan, Italy in January 1962. The production was conducted by Piero Bellugi, and an all-star cast featuring Mirella Freni, Rolando Panerai, Fiorenza Cossotto, Irene Companez, Leonardo Monreale, Franco Calabrese, and Luigi Alva in the title role. Because Handel operas were still in a relatively early stage of their return to the stage, musicians had not yet thought to ornament the da capo sections (repetition of the A section) of the arias and thus, they were not ornamented. A complete recording was made in 1979. A particularly highly acclaimed production, sung in English, was staged by the English National Opera in 1985, to mark the 300th anniversary of the composer's birth. Conducted by Sir Charles Mackerras, it was directed by Nicholas Hytner, who also translated the libretto, and starred Ann Murray in the title role, with Valerie Masterson as Romilda, Christopher Robson as Arsamene, and Lesley Garrett as Atalanta.[8] The production returned for a sixth revival to the London Coliseum in September 2014, starring Alice Coote as Xerxes.[9] Hytner's production was also performed by San Francisco Opera in 2011.[10] Numerous performances around the world include the Royal Opera of Versailles in 2017,[11] Opernhaus Düsseldorf in 2019 and the Detroit Opera in 2023.[12]

Roles

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Caffarelli, who created the role of Serse
Roles, voice types, and premiere cast
Role Voice type Premiere cast, 15 April 1738[13]
Serse (Xerxes), King of Persia soprano castrato Gaetano Majorano ("Caffarelli")
Arsamene, brother of Serse, in love with Romilda contralto Maria Antonia Marchesini ("La Lucchesina")
Amastre, princess of a neighbouring kingdom, betrothed to Serse but jilted by him contralto Antonia Merighi
Romilda, daughter of Ariodate, in love with Arsamene soprano Élisabeth Duparc ("La Francesina")
Atalanta, Romilda's sister, also in love with Arsamene soprano Margherita Chimenti ("La Droghierina")
Ariodate, a prince under Serse's command,father of Romilda and Atalanta bass Antonio Montagnana
Elviro, Arsamene's servant baritone Antonio Lottini

Synopsis

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Place: Abydos, Persian Empire
Time: about 470 BC

Act 1

[edit]

A garden with a large plane tree and a summerhouse on the side

"Ombra mai fù"
Recitative and aria, performed by Enrico Caruso in 1920
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Élisabeth Duparc, who created the role of Romilda

The King of Persia, Serse, gives effusive, loving thanks to the plane tree for furnishing him with shade (Arioso: "Ombra mai fu"). His brother Arsamene, with his buffoonish servant Elviro, enters, looking for Arsamene's sweetheart Romilda. They stop as they hear her singing from the summerhouse. Romilda is making gentle fun of Serse with her song. He is in love with a tree, but the tree does not return his affection. Serse does not know that his brother is in love with the singer, and entranced by her music, Serse announces that he wants her to be his. Arsamene is horrified when Serse orders him to tell Romilda of his love. Arsamene warns Romilda of what Serse wants — this encourages Atalanta, Romilda's sister, who is secretly in love with Arsamene also and hopes that Romilda will be Serse's and then she can have Arsamene.

Serse tells Romilda that he wants her for his queen and when Arsamene remonstrates Serse banishes him. Romilda is determined to remain faithful to the man she loves, Arsamene.

Outside the palace

Princess Amastre now arrives, disguised as a man. She was engaged to Serse but he jilted her and she is furiously determined to be revenged.

Ariodate, general to Serse and father of Romilda and Atalanta, enters with news of a great military victory he has won. Serse is grateful to him and promises that as a reward his daughter Romilda will marry a man equal in rank to the King himself.

Arsamene gives Elviro a letter for Romilda, telling her how distressed he is at their forced separation and pledging to try to visit her in secret. Romilda's sister Atalanta, hoping to secure Arsamene for herself, tells Romilda that Arsamene is in love with another girl, but Romilda does not believe it.

Act 2

[edit]
Antonia Merighi, who created the role of Amastre, in a caricature by Antonio Maria Zanetti

A square in the city

Elviro has disguised himself as a flower-seller in order to deliver his master Arsamene's letter to Romilda, and is also putting on a rural accent. He does not approve of the King's desire to marry a mere subject such as Romilda and makes this clear. Princess Amastre, in her disguise as a man, hears Elviro expressing this and she is aghast at the King's plan to marry another when he promised to be hers (Aria: "Or che siete speranze tradite").

Amastre leaves in despair and rage and Atalanta enters. Elviro tells her he has a letter for her sister and Atalanta takes it, promising to give it to Romilda. Instead she mischievously shows the letter to the King, telling him that Arsamene sent it to her and no longer loves Romilda. Serse takes the letter and shows it to Romilda, telling her Arsamene is now in love with Atalanta, not her. Romilda is shaken (Aria: "È gelosia").

Princess Amastre has decided to kill herself but Elviro arrives in time to stop her. She resolves to confront the King with his ill-treatment of her. Elviro tells Amastre that Romilda now loves Serse: Amastre is devastated (Aria: "Anima infida").

By the newly-constructed bridge spanning the Hellespont and thus uniting Asia and Europe

Sailors hail the completion of the bridge, constructed under Serse's orders, and Serse orders his general Ariodate to cross the bridge with his army and invade Europe.

Serse encounters his heart-broken brother Arsamene and tells him to cheer up, he can marry the woman he now loves, Atalanta, no problem. Arsamene is confused and insists he loves Romilda, not Atalanta. Hearing this, the King advises Atalanta to forget about Arsamene, but she says that is impossible.

Elviro watches as a violent storm threatens to destroy the new bridge. He calms his nerves with drink.

Outside the city in a garden

Serse and Arsamene are both suffering from jealousy and the tribulations of the love lorn. Serse again implores Romilda to marry him but she remains firm in her refusal. The violently furious Amastre appears and draws a sword on the King but Romilda intervenes. Amastre says Romilda should not be forced to marry a man she does not love, and Romilda praises those who are true to their hearts (Aria: "Chi cede al furore").

Act 3

[edit]
Katarina Karnéus as Xerxes, Stockholm, Royal Swedish Opera, 2009

A gallery

Romilda and Arsamene are having a lovers' spat about that letter, but calm down when Atalanta appears and admits her deception. She has decided she will have to find another boyfriend somewhere else.

Serse again implores Romilda to marry him and she tells him to seek her father's permission, if he consents, she will. Arsamenes bitterly reproaches her for this (Aria: "Amor, tiranno Amor").

Serse once more asks Ariodate if he is happy for his daughter Romilda to marry someone equal in rank to the King. Ariodate thinks Serse means Arsamene and happily gives his consent. Serse tells Romilda that her father has agreed to their marriage but Romilda, trying to put him off, tells him that Arsamene loves her and in fact he has kissed her. Serse, furious, orders his brother to be put to death.

Amastre asks Romilda to take a letter to the King, telling her that this will help her. Amastre bewails her plight, having been abandoned by Serse, who promised to be hers (Aria: "Cagion son io").

Arsamene blames Romilda for the fact that he has been sentenced to death, and the lovers again quarrel (Duet: "Troppo oltraggi la mia fede").

The temple of the sun

Arsamene and Romilda have been summoned to the temple and they come in, still quarreling, but they are amazed and overjoyed when Ariodate tells them that Serse has agreed to their wedding and he marries them then and there.

Serse enters, ready to marry Romilda, and is enraged when he discovers that it is too late, Ariodate has married his daughter to Arsamene. Serse bitterly denounces Ariodate for that and is even more enraged when a letter arrives, apparently from Romilda, accusing him of faithlessness. When he discovers that the letter is actually from his previous fiance Amastre, whom he jilted, his fury only increases (Aria: "Crude furie degl' orridi abissi").

Serse takes his sword and orders Arsamene to kill Romilda with it; but Amastre interrupts this and asks Serse if he truly wants treachery and infidelity to be punished. Serse says he does whereupon Amastre reveals her true identity as Serse's betrothed. Serse, abashed, admits his fault – he will marry Amastre as he promised, he wishes his brother Arsamene and Romilda happiness in their marriage, and all celebrate the fortunate outcome of events (Chorus: "Ritorna a noi la calma").[13][14]

Historical motives

[edit]
Xerxes crossing the Hellespont

The libretto includes some motives that are based upon events that actually happened. Serse, Amastre and Arsamene are all based on historical people. The story of Xerxes wanting to marry the love of his brother Arsamenes is based upon a real story. In reality though, it was a wife of another brother Xerxes fell in love with but failed to marry himself.[15] The collapsing of a bridge over the Hellespont and Xerxes returning from a catastrophic campaign in Greece are real events during the reign of Xerxes, though they are anachronistic here.

Recordings

[edit]

Audio recordings

[edit]
Serse discography, audio recordings
Year Cast: Serse, Romilda,
Arsamene, Amastre,
Atalanta, Elviro,
Ariodate 		Conductor,
orchestra 		Label[16]
1965 Maureen Forrester,
Lucia Popp,
Maureen Lehane,
Mildred Miller,
Marilyn Tyler,
Owen Brannigan,
Thomas Hemsley 		Brian Priestman
Vienna Radio Orchestra 		CD: Deutsche Grammophon
Cat: 0289 477 8339 8
1979 Carolyn Watkinson,
Barbara Hendricks,
Paul Esswood,
Ortrun Wenkel,
Anne-Marie Rodde,
Ulrich Studer,
Ulrik Cold 		Jean-Claude Malgoire
La Grande Écurie et la Chambre du Roy 		CD: Sony
Cat: 88985397842
1997 Ann Murray,
Yvonne Kenny,
Christopher Robson,
Patricia Bardon,
Julie Kaufmann,
Jan Zinkler,
Umberto Chiummo 		Ivor Bolton
Bayerische Staatsoper 		CD: Farao
Cat: B108010
2003 Anne Sofie von Otter,
Elizabeth Norberg-Schulz,
Lawrence Zazzo,
Silvia Tro Santafé,
Sandrine Piau,
Antonio Abete,
Giovanni Furlanetto 		William Christie
Les Arts Florissants 		CD: Erato Records
Cat: 9029590062
2013 Anna Stéphany,
Rosemary Joshua,
David Daniels,
Hilary Summers,
Joélle Harvey,
Andreas Wolf,
Brindley Sherratt 		Christian Curnyn
Early Opera Company 		CD: Chandos Records
Cat: CHAN0797(3)
2018 Franco Fagioli,
Inga Kalna,
Vivica Genaux,
Delphine Galou,
Francesca Aspromonte,
Biagio Pizzuti,
Andrea Mastroni 		Maxim Emelyanychev
Il Pomo d'Oro 		CD: Deutsche Grammophon
Cat: 4835784

Video recording

[edit]
Serse discography, audio recordings
Year Cast: Serse, Romilda,
Arsamene, Amastre,
Atalanta, Elviro,
Ariodate 		Conductor,
orchestra 		Stage director Label
2018 Gaëlle Arquez,
Elizabeth Sutphen,
Lawrence Zazzo,
Tanja Ariane Baumgartner,
Louise Alder,
Thomas Faulkner,
Brandon Cedel 		Constantinos Carydis
Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester 		Tilmann Köhler Blu-ray: C Major
Cat: 748004

References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Serse

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Serse is an opera seria in three acts composed by to an Italian libretto anonymously adapted from one by Silvio Stampiglia, which had previously served Antonio Francesco Bononcini's 1694 opera Xerse. The work premiered at the King's Theatre in on 15 April 1738 and draws loosely from historical accounts in of the Persian king Xerxes I's invasion of Greece in the 5th century BCE. The plot centers on Xerxes, portrayed as an impulsive ruler infatuated first with a majestic plane tree—symbolizing his admiration for natural beauty—and then with Romilda, the beloved of his brother Arsamene, leading to familial and romantic conflicts. Despite banishing Arsamene and attempting to force Romilda's affections, Xerxes ultimately reconciles with his spurned fiancée Amastre, allowing Romilda and Arsamene to wed in a resolution emphasizing themes of love, power, and . The opera incorporates comic elements atypical of the genre, blending Venetian opera traditions with dramatic intrigue. Handel composed Serse rapidly between late December 1737 and mid-February 1738 amid waning public interest in in Britain, resulting in only five initial performances and mixed contemporary reception. Its famous opening , "" (sung by Xerxes in praise of the plane tree's shade), has endured as one of Handel's most beloved pieces, often known as the "Largo" and reinterpreted in modern contexts to humanize the of Xerxes beyond his tyrannical image in ancient sources. Today, Serse ranks among Handel's most performed and popular operas, celebrated for its melodic richness and satirical edge.

Composition and libretto

Composition process

Handel began composing Serse on 26 December 1737 and completed the score on 14 February 1738, preparing it for performance at the King's Theatre in . The opera's creation spanned approximately seven weeks, with the first act finished by early January, the second by late January, and the third by early February, reflecting Handel's efficient working method during this period. The composition occurred amid turbulent circumstances in London's opera scene. Following the dissolution of the Royal Academy of Music in 1728, Handel had faced intense rivalry from the Opera of the Nobility, established in 1733 and backed by aristocratic patrons opposed to his company. The rival group's bankruptcy in June 1737 ended the competition, enabling Handel to reclaim the King's Theatre for the 1737–38 season and stage Serse there without direct opposition. Handel's approach to Serse was shaped by the decade-long success of English operas, particularly John Gay's (1728), which satirized through accessible tunes, spoken dialogue, and comic intrigue, drawing huge audiences and diminishing interest in elaborate foreign works. In response, Handel introduced buffo elements—low-comedy characters like the gardener Elviro—and shortened many arias to quick, character-driven pieces, blending serious and humorous tones in a way uncommon for his prior operas. Consistent with his lifelong practice of self-borrowing to expedite composition and adapt proven material, Handel incorporated music from his earlier operas into Serse, drawing on themes and passages from works like Siroe (1728) and Poro (1731) to enhance dramatic efficiency. This reuse allowed him to maintain high quality under tight deadlines while tailoring the score to the lighter, more varied style demanded by shifting public tastes.

Libretto adaptation and sources

The libretto for George Frideric Handel's opera Serse (HWV 40) was adapted anonymously from Silvio Stampiglia's Il Xerse (1694), which had been set to music by for its premiere in at the Teatro di Torre di Nona. Stampiglia, a prominent member of the Accademia degli Arcadi, radically revised earlier versions to align with contemporary operatic tastes, introducing new scenes, altering recitatives, and creating fresh texts while retaining only eight arias from the original with minimal modifications. Stampiglia's itself derived from Nicolò Minato's Il Xerse (1654–1655), originally composed for Cavalli's of the same name, premiered in at the Teatro SS. Giovanni e Paolo. Minato's text, drawing loosely on Herodotus's accounts of , emphasized historical spectacle but included fictional romantic intrigues; Stampiglia preserved archaic elements like the comic role of the servant Elviro while modernizing the dramatic flow to blend with humor. Handel's anonymous librettist further refined this lineage by shortening the text, eliminating subplots and minor characters such as Aristone, Eumene, and Clito, and streamlining the narrative for the production at the King's Theatre in to ensure a tighter integration of serious and lighthearted tones suitable for the genre. The resulting libretto is structured as an in three acts, comprising 50 musical numbers including arias, duets, and a chorus, which facilitate a dynamic alternation between recitative-driven and expressive vocal set pieces. This format allowed Handel to explore thematic contrasts, such as the folly of absolute power exemplified by Serse's impulsive decrees and his absurd infatuation with a plane tree, juxtaposed against intricate love triangles involving Serse, his brother Arsamenes, Romilda, and the disguised Amastre. These elements, unique to the adapted text, underscore themes of jealousy, betrayal, and , infusing the with comic irony and emotional depth.

Roles and music

Vocal roles and casting

Serse features seven principal vocal roles, typical of Handel's late operas, with a focus on high voices for the lead male characters to exploit the virtuosity of castrati. The score emphasizes soprano and contralto lines for dramatic expression, particularly in arias that showcase agility and emotional depth.
RoleVoice TypeCharacter Function
SerseSoprano castratoKing of Persia, self-willed and infatuated with Romilda, blending tyranny with comic elements.
ArsameneContraltoSerse's brother, devoted lover of Romilda, facing jealousy and banishment.
RomildaSopranoDaughter of Ariodate, steadfastly in love with Arsamene despite the king's advances.
AtalantaSopranoRomilda's sister, pursuing Arsamene through deception before yielding.
AmastreContraltoQueen of Persia and Serse's betrothed, disguised as a man to spy and seek revenge for his infidelity.
ElviroBassArsamene's servant, comic relief through disguises and mishaps.
AriodateBassPersian general and father of Romilda and Atalanta, loyal to the crown.
The roles reflect Handel's adaptation of the libretto to suit his singers, with elaborate arias tailored to highlight vocal prowess. In modern productions, the castrato roles of Serse and Arsamene are often performed by countertenors or female . At the on 15 1738 at the King's in , the cast included renowned whose abilities shaped the opera's vocal demands. Serse was portrayed by castrato Majorano (Caffarelli), known for his technical brilliance, which prompted Handel to compose florid passages in the title role. Arsamene was sung by Maria Antonia Marchesini ("La Lucchesina"), whose expressive style influenced poignant arias of longing. Romilda went to Élisabeth Duparc (La Francescina), Atalanta to Margherita Chimenti ("La Droghierina"), Amastre to Antonia Maria Merighi, Elviro to bass Antonio Lottini, and Ariodate to bass Antonio Montagnana. These performers' strengths, especially the 's range and agility, elevated the opera's musical impact despite its initial mixed reception.

Orchestration and musical structure

Handel's Serse employs a modest orchestral typical of his late operas, consisting of two oboes, two horns, strings (first and second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses), and continuo realized on and . This creates an intimate, chamber-like sound without the grandeur of trumpets or , allowing the vocal lines to remain prominent while providing subtle color and rhythmic drive, particularly through the horns in or hunting contexts. The score is structured around approximately 50 musical numbers distributed across three acts, comprising over 40 arias and ensembles (including 4 duets), 2 accompanied recitatives, and 1 instrumental that opens the opera, with no choruses. This organization reflects Handel's evolving approach to , blending formal elements with dramatic flow to sustain audience engagement in a facing declining popularity. The , a French-style in , sets a lively yet elegant tone with its allegro-grave-allegro form, underscoring the opera's mix of comedy and pathos. Notable innovations in Serse include shorter arias, averaging 2-3 minutes, which contrast with the extended forms of earlier works and facilitate quicker scene transitions. Additionally, the comic role of Elviro incorporates patter-style recitatives and lighter musical textures, integrating buffo elements into the framework to heighten the opera's satirical edge without disrupting its overall elegance.

Synopsis

Act 1

The first act of Handel's Serse unfolds in the gardens of Abydos in the Persian Empire, circa 470 BC, during King Xerxes' (Serse's) preparations for his campaign against . The opera opens with Serse reclining beneath a majestic plane tree, which he praises for providing soothing shade never felt by anyone before, declaring it sacred and vowing to honor it by dedicating to it the grand bridge he is constructing across the Hellespont to link and . Serse's reverie is interrupted by the enchanting voice of Romilda, daughter of the general Ariodate, singing from a nearby summerhouse; captivated, he instantly falls in love and resolves to make her his queen. Romilda, however, is devoted to Serse's brother Arsamene, who reciprocates her affection despite their differing social stations. When Serse commands Arsamene to serve as messenger of his love to Romilda, Arsamene refuses, confessing his own passion for her and warning Romilda of the king's intentions. Undaunted by the rejection, Serse proposes marriage to Romilda, promising her royal status, but she firmly rebuffs him, proclaiming her fidelity to Arsamene. , Romilda's scheming sister who secretly desires Arsamene for herself, encourages Serse's pursuit in hopes of benefiting from the turmoil, while plotting to undermine the lovers. Ariodate arrives to report a military victory, and Serse, to reward him, vows that Romilda will wed a man of equal —unwittingly setting for further entanglements. Amastre, the foreign betrothed to Serse, enters disguised as a man after fleeing the court upon learning of his infidelity; she overhears his declarations for Romilda and seethes with plans for revenge. The act concludes with Serse, enraged by Arsamene's defiance, banishing him and forcing him to lead an expedition to conquer as a means of exile, while Amastre's male disguise remains concealed amid the rising romantic and political tensions.

Act 2

In Act 2, Arsamene sends his servant Elviro with a letter professing his unwavering love for Romilda, but the delivery spirals into comic chaos when Elviro disguises himself as a flower seller in a public square to avoid detection. , Romilda's scheming sister who covets Arsamene, intercepts Elviro and tricks him into handing over the letter by falsely claiming Romilda has transferred her affections to , promising Elviro a reward for his compliance. She then presents the missive to , deceitfully asserting that it is addressed to her and that Arsamene has forsaken Romilda, thereby stoking 's jealousy and his belief in a romantic rival while positioning herself for potential gain. Serse, inflamed by this supposed betrayal, confronts Romilda with the news of Arsamene's alleged devotion to , proposing marriage to her as consolation and threatening renewed banishment for Arsamene if he persists in his affections. Meanwhile, Amastre, still in male disguise and having overheard Elviro's lamentations about the impending nuptials, attempts to reveal her true identity to in a desperate bid to reclaim his love, but her efforts are thwarted by his single-minded pursuit of Romilda. The ensuing confusion heightens when Amastre intervenes dramatically, drawing a sword to defend Romilda from 's advances, leading to a tense standoff that underscores the escalating romantic entanglements and 's tyrannical impulses. Ariodate, Romilda's father and a loyal general, offers measured support to Arsamene by advising him to feign indifference toward Romilda in Serse's presence, hoping to navigate the king's volatile moods and secure familial alliances amid the turmoil. As misunderstandings proliferate—Elviro's bungled errand sowing further discord and Atalanta's manipulations unraveling—Serse's jealousy boils over into rage upon Romilda's steadfast rejection, culminating in his defiant resolve to wed her regardless of opposition, setting the stage for intensified conflicts.

Act 3

In the third act, Romilda and Arsamene, still entangled in the confusions from prior acts, initially quarrel over the involving Arsamenes' letter, but they reconcile upon Atalanta's of her manipulative scheme to win Arsamene for herself. Preparations for the of Serse and Romilda proceed amid tension, as Serse insistently demands Romilda's hand, and she conditionally accepts only with her father Ariodate's approval. Elviro, Arsamene's comic servant, appears in his final disguise as a to facilitate aspects of the chaotic arrangements, contributing to the escalating mix of deceptions before all disguises are exposed in the ensuing revelations. Amastre, who has traveled in male disguise throughout the opera, dramatically reveals her true identity to Serse during a confrontation in the temple, brandishing a sword and accusing him of betrayal; humbled by her words and the realization of his errors, Serse repents, agrees to fulfill their original betrothal by marrying her, and withdraws his claim on Romilda. Meanwhile, Ariodate oversees the union of Arsamene and Romilda, mistakenly believing it aligns with Serse's royal decree, thus resolving their lovers' arc with a surprise wedding ceremony. The exposures extend to the broader intrigues, clearing the path for harmony. The resolution extends comic forgiveness to , who is pardoned for her scheming ambitions, and to Elviro, whose bungled efforts and disguises are overlooked in the spirit of . Serse, now chastened, blesses the of Arsamene and Romilda while recommitting to Amastre, tying together the romantic threads. The act concludes with a jubilant final chorus from the ministers and attendants, celebrating the restoration of peace, the triumph of true love, and the harmonious order among the characters.

Historical context

Basis in ancient history

Handel's opera Serse is loosely inspired by the historical figure of , the fourth king of the , who reigned from 486 to 465 BCE and is renowned for his role in the Second Persian invasion of Greece around 480 BCE. The character of Serse directly corresponds to this monarch, whose ambitious military campaigns and engineering feats, including the bridging of the Hellespont, form a symbolic backdrop to the opera's themes of power and folly. Central to the historical basis is Xerxes I's construction of a across the Hellespont (modern ) in 480 BCE, an event vividly described by the Greek historian as a monumental act of . To facilitate his massive army's crossing into as a prelude to the Persian Wars, Xerxes ordered two parallel bridges built from Abydos on the Asian side to the European shore near , using hundreds of ships lashed together with and cables; a storm's destruction of an initial attempt reportedly led to the king's infamous punishment of the sea by having it whipped and branded. This engineering spectacle, tying the opera's setting to the ancient city of Abydos near the , underscores Xerxes' determination to conquer , though the invasion ultimately ended in defeat at Salamis and . The character of reflects , Xerxes I's queen and the daughter of the prominent Persian noble , who bore the king several children, including the future . Ariodate is modeled on Ariomardus, a half-brother to Xerxes as the son of Darius I and Parmys (daughter of the pretender ), who commanded the Moschi and Tibareni during the Greek campaign (, Histories 7.78). Similarly, Arsamene draws from Arsamenes (Greek: Ἀρσαμήνης), a son of Darius I and thus half-brother to Xerxes, who served as a commander in the invasion (, Histories 7.98). These figures, while adapted for dramatic purposes, anchor the opera in the familial and military dynamics of the Achaemenid court amid preparations for the Greco-Persian conflict.

Anachronisms and dramatic liberties

Handel's Serse incorporates several anachronisms rooted in Italian operatic traditions, particularly those from 17th-century Venetian opera, which emphasized comic interludes and structural irregularities like abbreviated arias, diverging from the more formalized 18th-century conventions prevalent in . The , adapted from Silvio Stampiglia's 1694 text originally set by , infuses the Persian setting with Italianate elements, including and that evoke contemporary European courtly intrigue rather than ancient Near Eastern customs. This Venetian influence manifests in the opera's blend of high drama and low comedy, creating a tonal mismatch with the historical Persian backdrop around 480 BCE. A prominent is the famous opening "," where Serse declares his tender affection for a plane tree, an episode drawn loosely from but exaggerated into a romantic irrelevant to the of ancient Persia. While records Xerxes honoring a beautiful plane tree near Callatebus with gold ornaments and a guardian (Histories 7.31), the transforms this into a whimsical, ahistorical display of infatuation, underscoring the work's satirical edge. Similarly, the inclusion of comic servants like Elviro, a buffoonish figure speaking in Venetian dialect and parodying heroic arias such as "Ah! tigre infedele," introduces unhistorical lowbrow humor absent from ancient accounts of the Persian court. Dramatic liberties abound to heighten emotional and comedic tension, including the invention of a involving Serse, the fictional Romilda, and her suitor Arsamene, which fabricates romantic rivalries not present in historical records. Amastre's of disguising herself as a man to spy on and confront Serse is a pure operatic contrivance, echoing tropes from but without basis in the life of Xerxes' queen . The Hellespont bridge, historically a marvel for , is repurposed as a romantic stage where Serse proposes to Romilda, shifting its significance from imperial hubris to amorous folly. These deviations serve the dramatic purpose of amplifying the theme of , portraying Serse's overreach in love and power as a cautionary blend of pathos and comic , which reconciles the opera's centrifugal elements into a unified on tyranny and folly. By prioritizing emotional spectacle over fidelity to , the critiques operatic excess while entertaining through exaggeration.

Performance history

Premiere and early performances

Serse premiered on 15 April 1738 at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket, London. The production ran for five performances, ending in early May 1738. This limited engagement stemmed from the ongoing decline of Italian opera in London during the mid-1730s, as public taste shifted toward more accessible English-language forms like ballad opera, exemplified by the enduring popularity of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera from 1728. Critics further faulted the work's blend of tragi-comedy and buffoonery, which strayed from the solemn expectations of . Later, 18th-century historian Charles Burney deemed it "the most indifferent of all [Handel's] dramatic works," citing the composer's disturbed state and a feeble . The opera saw no revivals in Handel's lifetime, totaling just five performances in the .

Revivals from 1924 to present

The modern revival of Handel's Serse began with Oskar Hagen's production at the International Handel Festival on July 5, 1924, which restored the opera to after nearly two centuries of and ignited renewed scholarly and in Handel's dramatic works. In the mid-20th century, a landmark staging occurred at in in January 1962, conducted by Piero Bellugi with a distinguished cast including Mirella Freni as Romilda, Fiorenza Cossotto as Amastre, and Luigi Alva as Arsamene, marking one of the earliest post-war productions to showcase the opera's satirical elements on a major international stage. Later, the English National Opera's 1985 production, directed by and conducted by Sir , translated the into English and emphasized the opera's comedic intrigue through witty staging, significantly boosting the global popularity of the opening aria "" and encouraging further Handel revivals in the . The 21st century has seen a surge in productions worldwide, often innovating on Handel's score to highlight its humor and emotional depth. presented the work in October 2011 using Hytner's updated staging, with Susan Graham in the title role and David Daniels as Arsamenes, conducted by Patrick Summers on period instruments to underscore the baroque textures. In November 2017, the Opéra Royal de Versailles hosted a performance led by Christophe Rousset and Les Talens Lyriques, featuring Franco Fagioli as Serse in a historically informed production that celebrated the opera's French influences. In 2019, Deutsche Oper am Rhein premiered Stefan Herheim's inventive staging, portraying the drama as a backstage theatrical rivalry with Valer Sabadus as Serse and Jacquelyn Wagner as Romilda, blending meta-theatrical comedy with period-style accompaniment under Konrad Junghänel. More recently, Opera offered a contemporary interpretation in March 2023, directed by Tazewell Thompson and conducted by , which reimagined the royal court in a modern context to explore themes of power and desire, with Key'mon Murrah as Serse. Notable 21st-century adaptations include the 2023 production by Clarac & Deloeuil (Le Lab) for medici.tv, which transposed the story to a skateboarding subculture with Jake Arditti as Serse and Jakub Józef Orliński as Arsamene, streamed in February 2025. In 2025, the Handel Opera Academy presented a production of Serse from July 5 to August 3 in Bolesławiec, Poland, focusing on young artists in a full staging. The North Norfolk Chamber Opera performed Xerxes in May 2025 at St Margaret's Church, Cley-next-the-Sea, UK, in a chamber-scale revival. In November 2025, the Kungliga Operan (Royal Swedish Opera) in Stockholm staged Xerxes, continuing the trend of major European houses reviving Handel's works. Contemporary revivals of Serse reflect broader trends in Handel performance practice, including the widespread adoption of period instruments for authentic , as seen in ensembles like Les Talens Lyriques and Philharmonia Baroque, and gender-fluid casting with countertenors and mezzos in trouser roles to evoke the original castrati traditions while embracing modern diversity. Directors have increasingly updated stagings to amplify the opera's comedic absurdities—such as Serse's infatuation with a plane tree—through anachronistic elements like skateparks or theater-within-a-theater devices, making the work accessible and resonant for today's audiences without altering the score.

Musical analysis and legacy

Notable arias and numbers

One of the most renowned numbers in Serse is the opening "" from Act 1, a Largo in scored for strings, in which the titular king praises the shade of a beloved plane tree with tender affection. This melody, often detached from its operatic context and known simply as "Handel's Largo," has achieved widespread popularity in modern culture, appearing in films such as (1994), television advertisements for brands like , and even ice cream jingles, symbolizing serene beauty and nostalgia. Handel adapted the aria from Giovanni Bononcini's earlier setting in his 1694 opera Il Xerse, which itself drew from Cavalli's 1654 version of the same story, preserving the poetic text by Nicolò Minato while infusing it with Handel's characteristic lyrical warmth. Among the opera's other vocal highlights is Arsamene's rage "Amor, tiranno Amor" in Act 3, a stormy piece in that conveys the prince's bitter fury and anguish upon believing Romilda has betrayed him, featuring rapid passages and driving orchestral rhythms to underscore emotional turmoil. The "L'amerete?" between Serse and Romilda in Act 2 Scene 4 provides a lighter contrast, a playful exchange in where the king questions and presses Romilda on her affections with overlapping vocal lines and sprightly string accompaniment, highlighting Handel's skill in writing to advance comic intrigue. The opera concludes with the jubilant final chorus "Ritorna a noi la calma" in Act 3, a stately in C major for full chorus and orchestra that restores harmony after the chaos, blending homophonic textures with triumphant fanfares to affirm resolution and peace. Handel employs accompanied recitatives strategically for dramatic emphasis, such as in Serse's bridge scene in Act 1 Scene 10, where orchestral interludes heighten the king's boastful description of his Hellespont engineering feat, bridging the historical allusion to Persian ambition with the personal follies of the plot. These moments, rich in expressive string figures and harmonic shifts, elevate the narrative tension beyond standard secco recitatives, contributing to the opera's blend of and .

Style, innovations, and critical reception

Serse exemplifies Handel's late-period experimentation within the genre, incorporating comic intrusions that disrupt the traditional tragic framework and introduce elements reminiscent of the style, such as the scheming servant Elviro's antics. Unlike earlier operas dominated by elaborate arias focused on virtuosic display, Serse features shorter, character-driven arias, with nearly half lacking the full repetition, allowing for more fluid dramatic progression and emotional nuance. This shift emphasizes psychological depth over static expression, as seen in the ironic contrast between Serse's grandiose declarations and his absurd infatuation with a plane tree. Handel's innovations in Serse include the integration of English ballad-like melodic simplicity in certain numbers, evoking popular traditions to heighten accessibility, alongside a greater emphasis on ensemble pieces that foster interplay among characters rather than isolated solo showcases. Duets such as "L’amerete? / L’amerò" and choruses like the sailors' "Già la tromba" advance the plot through collective expression, marking a departure from the solo-centric structure of conventional and foreshadowing ensemble-driven forms in later comic operas. These elements reflect Handel's adaptation to London's diverse audience, blending Italian formality with vernacular appeal. The opera's 1738 premiere at the King's Theatre was a commercial failure, lasting only five performances, with critics decrying its "buffoonery" and perceived mismatch of tragic nobility with farcical humor, as noted by contemporaries like Charles Burney who labeled it "feeble writing." Modern reception has transformed this view, with the 1985 production directed by serving as a pivotal revival that highlighted its and , sparking renewed interest in Handel's operas. Scholars such as Winton Dean have praised its convincing characterizations, while Anthony Hicks has commended the agile balance between farce and tragedy. Post-2000 analyses further explore themes of gender roles, particularly through trouser roles like Amastre's cross-dressing disguise, which challenge binary norms, and in the Persian setting, where exotic stereotypes amplify dramatic irony. A 2024 production at Opernhaus , directed by Christof Loy, continued to emphasize these themes in a contemporary staging.

Recordings

Audio recordings

The first complete recording of Handel's Serse appeared in 1965, conducted by Brian Priestman with the Vienna Radio Orchestra and Chorus on the Westminster label. This pioneering modern performance featured Maureen Forrester as Serse, Lucia Popp as Romilda, mezzo-soprano Mildred Miller as Amastre, and bass Owen Brannigan as Ariodate, among others. Recorded with modern instruments, it emphasized dramatic expression over historical accuracy, with broader tempos that highlighted the opera's lyrical qualities but occasionally sacrificed rhythmic vitality. A significant period-instrument recording emerged in 1997 under Nicholas McGegan with the Hanover Band on the Virgin Classics label. Judith Malafronte shone as Serse, opposite Jennifer Smith as Romilda and Brian Asawa as Arsamene, delivering agile ornamentation and emotional depth. The ensemble's brisk tempos and authentic brought fresh energy to the score, though some critics noted occasional imbalances in the continuo section. William Christie's 1999 rendition with Les Arts Florissants, released on , marked a milestone in authentic performance practice. Anne Sofie von Otter portrayed Serse with charismatic flair, supported by Lawrence Zazzo as Arsamene, Elizabeth Norberg-Schulz as Romilda, and Silvia Tro Santafé as Amastre. The recording's lively tempos and precise articulation captured the opera's comic elements, earning praise for its theatrical flow and balanced ensemble sound. In 2013, Christian Curnyn led the Early Opera Company in a vibrant complete recording on Chandos, featuring Anna Stéphany as Serse and David Daniels as Arsamene, with Rosemary Joshua as Romilda and Hilary Summers as Amastre. Period instruments and up-tempo execution underscored the score's wit and pathos, with reviewers highlighting the cast's incisive and the orchestra's spirited drive as advancing Handel's dramatic intentions. Maxim Emelyanychev's 2018 Deutsche Grammophon recording with Il Pomo d'Oro showcased Franco Fagioli as Serse in a dynamic, first interpretation of the title role, alongside Vivica Genaux as Amastre, Inga Kalna as Romilda, and Francesca Aspromonte as Atalanta. The period ensemble's energetic tempos and bold articulations emphasized authenticity, with critics commending its impetus and Fagioli's virtuosic agility, though some found the pace occasionally rushed in reflective arias. The most recent complete audio recording, released in 2023 by Linn Records, was conducted by Harry Bicket with The English Concert, featuring Emily D'Angelo as Serse, soprano Lucy Crowe as Romilda, Paula Murrihy as Arsamene, and soprano Mary Bevan as . This studio effort, following concert performances, employed period instruments for nuanced phrasing and moderate tempos that balanced humor and tenderness, receiving acclaim for its ravishing clarity and profound dramatic insight.

Video recordings and adaptations

One notable video recording of Serse is the 1988 filmed performance of the English National Opera's (ENO) acclaimed 1985 production, directed by and set in an with witty anachronistic elements like modern and sequences to highlight the opera's satirical tone. Starring as the pompous King Serse, Valerie Masterson as Romilda, and Christopher Robson as Arsamenes, the production was conducted by and emphasizes the work's comic intrigue through vibrant staging and character-driven interactions. This adaptation, available on DVD and featuring excerpts online, marked a pivotal revival that influenced subsequent interpretations by blending historical accuracy with contemporary humor. In 2017, a semi-staged performance at the Opéra Royal de Versailles, directed by the venue's artistic team, showcased Franco Fagioli in the title role alongside Inga Kalna as Romilda and conducted by with Il Pomo d'Oro, with singers interacting dynamically on stage to convey the opera's romantic entanglements. The production's elegant setting in the royal theater integrated subtle movement and period costumes, focusing on vocal fireworks, and was later adapted for a 2018 staged version at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in , maintaining the same cast for a fuller dramatic realization. The Opera's 2023 production, a co-presentation with L'Opéra de Montréal directed by André Barbe and designed by Monique Léger, reimagined Serse in a modern urban landscape with integrated and emphasizing youthful energy and social dynamics. Featuring Key'mon Murrah as Xerxes alongside Samantha Hammac as Romilda and conducted by , the staging used contemporary costumes and abstract sets to underscore themes of power and desire, with video excerpts available highlighting key arias like "." Among adaptations, the ENO's 1985 production by Hytner was captured on film in 1988, serving as an early cinematic treatment that preserved the opera's lively ensemble scenes and satirical edge for broader audiences through its accessible English translation and theatrical flair. A bold 2023 reinterpretation, streamed on medici.tv in 2025, was directed by the Clarac-Deloeuil collective (Jean-Philippe Clarac and Olivier Deloeuil), transforming Serse into the leader of a rebellious skate crew navigating jealousy and romance in a contemporary street culture setting with integrated skateboarding routines and video projections. Jake Arditti portrayed the impulsive Serse, Jakub Józef Orliński the lovesick Arsamenes, and Mari Eriksmoen the steadfast Romilda, conducted by David Bates, blending Handel's score with urban dance to explore adolescent turmoil.

References

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