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Shrikethrush
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| Shrikethrushes | |
|---|---|
.jpg)
| |
| Grey shrikethrush (C. harmonica) | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Pachycephalidae |
| Subfamily: | Pachycephalinae |
| Genus: | Colluricincla Vigors & Horsfield, 1827 |
| Type species | |
| Colluricincla cinerea[1] Vigors & Horsfield, 1827
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
A shrikethrush, also spelled shrike-thrush, is any one of eleven species of songbird that is a member of the genus Colluricincla. They have nondescript, predominantly brown or grey, plumage, but are accomplished singers,[2] their calls described as "strong, mellow and beautiful".[3] Shrikethrushes are generally insectivorous, though have been recorded eating molluscs and berries. They build cup-shaped nests in the forks of trees.[4]
Taxonomy and systematics
[edit]Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the genus in 1827, coining the genus name from the Ancient Greek words collurio "shrike" and cinclos "thrush". Noting the beak, they thought it related to shrikes or vangas, though its form was reminiscent of thrushes.[5] Shrikethrushes were commonly known as colluricinclas in the 19th century, but their current name was in use by the late 19th century.[6]
Molecular studies by Norman and colleagues in 2009 and Jønsson and colleagues in 2010 show the shrikethrushes to lie within the whistler family Pachycephalidae.[7][8] Formerly, some authorities classified the shrikethrushes in their own family Colluricinclidae.
Molecular dating suggests the shrikethrushes diverged from the common ancestor of the genus Pseudorectes (their closest relatives) in the mid-Pliocene around 3 million years ago, and that this combined lineage had diverged from the ancestor of the other members of the Pachycephalidae around 5 million years ago in the early Pliocene.[8] The Sangihe whistler was found to be more closely related to the maroon-backed whistler and hence shifted to the genus Coracornis.[8] Genetic investigations of New Guinea populations of the little shrikethrush indicate high levels of genetic divergence, suggesting it may comprise more than one species.[9]
Extant species
[edit]The genus contains the following five species:[10]
| Image | Common name | Scientific name | Distribution |
|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) |
Sandstone shrikethrush | Colluricincla woodwardi | northwestern Australia (Kimberley region, northern Western Australia, Arnhem Land sandstone, northern Northern Territory, and northwestern Queensland) |
 |
Bower's shrikethrush | Colluricincla boweri | northeastern Australia (Wet Tropics region uplands) |
 |
Grey shrikethrush | Colluricincla harmonica | Throughout mainland Australia and Tasmania |
| - | Sooty shrikethrush | Colluricincla tenebrosa | patchily in montane west-central to east-central New Guinea |
 |
Little shrikethrush | Colluricincla megarhyncha | New Guinea, north and east Australia |
Former species
[edit]Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus Colluricincla:
- Sangihe whistler (as Colluricincla sanghirensis)[11]
- Island whistler (as Myiolestes phaionotus)[12]
- Yellow-throated whistler (as Myiolestes macrorhynchus)[13]
- Biak whistler (as Colluricincla melanorhyncha)
- Morningbird (as Colluricincla tenebrosa)[14]
- White-bellied pitohui (as Colluricincla incerta)[15]
- Rusty pitohui (as Colluricincla ferruginea)[16]
- Fiji shrikebill (as Myiolestes vitiensis)[17]
- Fiji shrikebill (buensis) (as Myiolestes buensis)[18]
- Futuna lesser shrikebill (as Myiolestes fortunae)[19]
- Fiji shrikebill (heinei) (as Myiolestes heinei)[20]
References
[edit]
- ^ "Pachycephalidae". aviansystematics.org. The Trust for Avian Systematics. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
- ^ Slater, Peter (1974). A Field Guide to Australian Birds: Passerines. Adelaide, South Australia: Rigby. p. 192. ISBN 0-85179-813-6.
- ^ Bruce Campbell; Elizabeth Lack (2010). A Dictionary of Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-4081-3838-0.
- ^ Gould, John (1848). An introduction to the Birds of Australia. Published by the author. p. 38.
- ^ Vigors, Nicholas Aylward; Horsfield, Thomas (1827). "A Description of the Australian Birds in the Collection of the Linnean Society; with an Attempt at Arranging them According to their Natural Affinities". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 15: 170–331 [213]. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1826.tb00115.x.
- ^ Gray, Jeannie; Fraser, Ian (2013). Australian Bird Names: A Complete Guide. Csiro Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-10471-6.
- ^ Norman, Janette A.; Ericson, Per G.; Jønsson, Knud A.; Fjeldså, Jon; Christidis, Les (2009). "A multi-gene phylogeny reveals novel relationships for aberrant genera of Australo-Papuan core Corvoidea and polyphyly of the Pachycephalidae and Psophodidae (Aves: Passeriformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 52 (2): 488–97. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.03.019. PMID 19341806.
- ^ a b c Jønsson, Knud A.; Bowie, Rauri C. K.; Moyle, Robert G.; Christidis, Les; Norman, Janette A.; Benz, Brett W.; Fjeldså, Jon (2010). "Historical biogeography of an Indo-Pacific passerine bird family (Pachycephalidae): different colonization patterns in the Indonesian and Melanesian archipelagos". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (2): 245–57. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02220.x.
- ^ Deiner, Kristy; Lemmon, Alan R.; Mack, Andrew L.; Fleischer, Robert C.; Dumbacher, John P. (2011). "A Passerine Bird's Evolution Corroborates the Geologic History of the Island of New Guinea". PLOS ONE. 6 (5) e19479. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...619479D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019479. PMC 3089620. PMID 21573115.
- ^ AviList Core Team (2025). "AviList: The Global Avian Checklist, v2025". doi:10.2173/avilist.v2025. Retrieved 12 December 2025.
- ^ "Coracornis sanghirensis - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
- ^ "Pachycephala phaionota - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-31.
- ^ "Pachycephala macrorhyncha - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-02-02.
- ^ "Pachycephala tenebrosa - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-02-13.
- ^ "Pseudorectes incertus - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-02-13.
- ^ "Pseudorectes ferrugineus - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-02-14.
- ^ "Clytorhynchus vitiensis [vitiensis, incl. fortunae, powelli] - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
- ^ "Clytorhynchus vitiensis buensis - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
- ^ "Clytorhynchus vitiensis fortunae - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
- ^ "Clytorhynchus vitiensis heinei - Avibase". avibase.bsc-eoc.org. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
Shrikethrush
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Shrikethrushes (Colluricincla) are a genus of medium-sized passerine birds in the whistler family Pachycephalidae, comprising 11 species native to Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands in the Australasian region. These robust songbirds, typically measuring 20–25 cm in length, feature stout, hooked bills adapted for foraging on insects and other prey, with plumage varying from grey and brown tones in continental forms to darker sooty hues in highland species. Renowned for their complex and melodious vocalizations, shrikethrushes use song for territory defense and pair bonding, often producing varied phrases that mimic other birds.[1][2]
The genus name Colluricincla derives from Latin roots meaning "shrike-thrush," reflecting the birds' thrush-like songs combined with a shrike-like bill, though they are unrelated to true shrikes (family Laniidae) or thrushes (family Turdidae).[3] Species distribution spans a wide range of habitats, including open eucalypt woodlands, subtropical forests, and montane rainforests, with some adapted to arid sandstone gorges and others to dense island undergrowth. For example, the widespread Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) inhabits much of Australia and southern New Guinea, while endemics like Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri) are restricted to Queensland's wet tropics.[2][4]
Diet primarily consists of invertebrates such as insects and spiders, supplemented by small vertebrates, eggs, and fruits, with foraging occurring from ground level to the canopy in pairs or small family groups. Breeding pairs are typically monogamous and territorial, constructing cup-shaped nests from bark, grass, and spider webs, where both parents share incubation and chick-rearing duties. Recent molecular studies have clarified the phylogeny, revealing two main clades and supporting the recognition of cryptic species within the genus, particularly in the diverse New Guinean radiation.[2][1][5]
These species generally share a robust build, hooked bills for insectivory, and melodious songs used in territorial defense, though vocal repertoires vary significantly between lineages, supporting the taxonomic delimitations. Conservation status across the genus is mostly Least Concern per IUCN assessments, with no species currently threatened, though habitat loss in New Guinea lowlands poses ongoing risks to several endemics. Further genetic studies continue to refine boundaries, particularly for subspecies within widespread taxa like the Grey Shrikethrush.[24][25]
Overall, while the genus faces no genus-wide crisis, monitoring is recommended for range-restricted species like Bower's shrikethrush, where ongoing habitat protection could prevent further downgrades in status. Population data gaps persist, particularly for montane and island populations, underscoring the need for targeted surveys.[33]
Taxonomy and systematics
Etymology and classification
The common name "shrikethrush" is a compound word derived from "shrike" and "thrush," reflecting the birds' superficial resemblance in plumage, hooked bill, and foraging behavior to shrikes (family Laniidae) of the Old World and thrushes (genus Turdus) of Europe.[6] This naming convention highlights their predatory habits, such as catching insects and small vertebrates, combined with their thrush-like song and ground-foraging tendencies.[3] The genus name Colluricincla was established by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, based on the type species Colluricincla harmonica (the grey shrikethrush), originally described by John Latham in 1801 as Turdus harmonicus.[7] Etymologically, Colluricincla combines elements from the synonymous genus Collurio (from Ancient Greek kolluriōn, a thrush-sized bird referenced by Aristotle and Hesychius) and cincla (from Greek kinklos, a small, tail-wagging waterside bird noted by ancient authors like Aristotle and Aristophanes, often interpreted as a dipper or wren-like species).[8] The name evokes the shrike-like hooked bill of these birds, which prompted their initial placement near shrikes despite their distinct songbird characteristics.[3] In modern taxonomy, shrikethrushes are classified within the family Pachycephalidae (whistlers), order Passeriformes, suborder Oscines (songbirds).[7] The genus Colluricincla comprises 11 extant species, primarily distributed in Australasia, with some taxonomic complexity arising from vocal and genetic variations that have led to debates over species limits (e.g., the "Little Shrikethrush" complex).[9] Historically, the group was misplaced in families like Turdidae (thrushes) or Muscicapidae (flycatchers) due to convergent traits, but molecular phylogenies confirm their position in Pachycephalidae, closely related to whistlers and pitohuis.[10] One former member, the Sangihe shrikethrush (Coracornis sanghirensis), was reclassified from Colluricincla to its own genus in 2013 based on morphological and genetic differences.[11]Phylogenetic relationships
The shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) belong to the family Pachycephalidae, which is part of the core Corvoidea clade within Passeriformes. Molecular analyses have shown that Colluricincla forms a monophyletic group within Pachycephalidae, closely related to the whistler genus Pachycephala, comprising a distinct Australo-Papuan radiation that diverged in the late Miocene. Earlier classifications sometimes separated Colluricincla due to morphological differences, but phylogenetic evidence confirms its placement within the family, with Colluricincla exhibiting cryptic plumage variation and low interspecific divergence in vocalizations.[12] Within Colluricincla, a comprehensive molecular phylogeny based on mitochondrial ND2 and nuclear introns reveals two primary clades: one comprising C. harmonica (grey shrikethrush), C. woodwardi (woodward's shrikethrush), and C. boweri (bower's shrikethrush), and the other including C. tenebrosa (sooty shrikethrush) and the C. megarhyncha complex (little shrikethrush). The first clade shows strong support (posterior probability 1.00), while the second has moderate support (0.92). The genus originated approximately 11.5 million years ago (95% HPD: 9.7–13.5 Mya), with deep divergences driven by geographic isolation in New Guinea and Australia. Notably, the subspecies C. m. melanorhyncha is phylogenetically nested within the whistler genus Pachycephala, sister to P. phaionota, indicating historical misclassification and suggesting its transfer to Pachycephala.[12][13] The C. megarhyncha complex exhibits particularly high cryptic diversity, splitting into seven well-supported lineages (posterior probability 1.00 each), often corresponding to island or lowland-highland barriers in New Guinea, with genetic distances exceeding 5% in ND2 sequences—levels typical of species-level differentiation. Species delimitation methods (mPTP and GMYC) and allelic species validation corroborate up to 11 species across Colluricincla, highlighting underestimated diversity due to morphological conservatism. Low gene flow among subspecies, as seen in C. harmonica, further supports these boundaries, with hybridization rare and localized. These findings underscore the role of Pleistocene climate fluctuations and topographic complexity in Australo-Papuan speciation.[12][13][14]Extant species
The genus Colluricincla includes 11 extant species of shrikethrushes, medium-sized songbirds in the family Pachycephalidae, primarily distributed across Australia, New Guinea, and adjacent islands in the Australo-Papuan region. These species exhibit cryptic plumage variations adapted to forested and woodland habitats, with recent taxonomic revisions driven by molecular phylogenetics revealing hidden diversity within formerly lumped complexes. The radiation is characterized by vocal and morphological divergence, particularly in the former "Little Shrikethrush" group, which has been split into multiple species based on genetic evidence showing deep phylogenetic separations.[5][15] Prior to 2018, the genus was recognized with fewer species, but phylogenetic analyses identified distinct lineages warranting full species status, especially among the C. megarhyncha complex. This revision, adopted by major authorities including the IOC World Bird List (version 9.2 onward), elevated several subspecies to species level, emphasizing allopatric speciation across island barriers. The extant species now recognized are as follows, grouped by broad distributional patterns for clarity:| Species | Scientific Name | Primary Distribution | Key Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sooty Shrikethrush | Colluricincla tenebrosa | Highlands of New Guinea | Dark sooty-brown plumage; inhabits mid-montane forests; monotypic. |
| Arafura Shrikethrush | Colluricincla megarhyncha | Northern Australia (Kimberley to Arnhem Land) and western New Guinea (Raja Ampat Islands) | Retained nominate after splits; two subspecies (C. m. parvula, C. m. megarhyncha); prefers mangroves and monsoon forests.[16] |
| Variable Shrikethrush | Colluricincla fortis | Eastern New Guinea (from Huon Peninsula to D'Entrecasteaux Islands) | Highly variable plumage; five subspecies; found in lowland and hill forests.[17] |
| Waigeo Shrikethrush | Colluricincla affinis | Waigeo Island (West Papuan Islands, Indonesia) | Monotypic; recently split; dark plumage in humid forests.[18] |
| Mamberamo Shrikethrush | Colluricincla obscura | Northwest-central New Guinea (Yapen Island to Mamberamo River) | One subspecies (C. o. hybridus); black-billed; lowland rainforest specialist.[19] |
| Sepik-Ramu Shrikethrush | Colluricincla tappenbecki | Northern New Guinea (Sepik-Ramu region to Adelbert Mountains) | Two subspecies; inhabits primary forests up to 1,500 m.[20] |
| Tagula Shrikethrush | Colluricincla discolor | Tagula Island (Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea) | Monotypic; isolated island endemic; dull olive-brown.[21] |
| Rufous Shrikethrush | Colluricincla rufogaster | Southeastern New Guinea and Bismarck Archipelago | Three subspecies; rufous underparts; widespread in lowlands. |
| Grey Shrikethrush | Colluricincla harmonica | Australia (widespread) and eastern New Guinea | Five subspecies; grey plumage with white lores; adaptable to varied habitats; sometimes split into three species.[22] |
| Bower's Shrikethrush | Colluricincla boweri | Northeastern Queensland, Australia (Atherton Tablelands) | Monotypic; sister to Grey Shrikethrush; striped underparts in wet forests.[4] |
| Sandstone Shrikethrush | Colluricincla woodwardi | Northwestern Australia (Kimberley region, sandstone gorges) | Monotypic; restricted to rugged sandstone habitats; measures 25–26.5 cm, 50–60 g.[23] |
Former species
Several species previously classified within the genus Colluricincla have been reclassified into other genera based on molecular phylogenetic analyses that revealed distinct evolutionary lineages within the family Pachycephalidae. These reclassifications stem from studies demonstrating polyphyly in the traditional broad concept of Colluricincla, leading to the recognition of separate genera for certain taxa formerly included as shrikethrushes or their subspecies. The Sangihe shrikethrush (Coracornis sanghirensis), endemic to Sangihe Island in Indonesia, was formerly placed in Colluricincla as C. sanghirensis but was moved to the newly erected genus Coracornis along with the closely related maroon-backed whistler (C. raveni). This change was prompted by phylogenetic evidence showing these species form a distinct clade sister to other pachycephalids, distinct from the core Colluricincla radiation. The reclassification highlights their unique biogeographic history in the northern Moluccas, supported by multi-gene analyses. The morningbird (Pachycephala tenebrosa), endemic to Palau, was previously treated as Colluricincla tenebrosa. This reclassification to Pachycephala followed molecular studies that placed it within the diverse whistler radiation rather than the shrikethrush lineage. When the morningbird was in Colluricincla, the Sooty Shrikethrush of New Guinea was temporarily named C. umbrina to avoid nomenclatural conflict; with the transfer, the Sooty Shrikethrush regained the name C. tenebrosa. This shift reflects its closer affinity to typical whistlers in vocalizations, plumage, and genetics, resolving earlier taxonomic confusion.[26][27] Other former members include the Biak whistler (Pachycephala melanorhyncha), once considered a subspecies of the little shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha melanorhyncha), now recognized as a full species in Pachycephala due to genetic divergence and distinct morphology. Similarly, the island whistler (Pachycephala phaionota) and yellow-throated whistler (Pachycephala macrorhyncha), originally described under the synonym Myiolestes for Colluricincla, have been reassigned to Pachycephala based on phylogenetic placement within the whistler clade. These adjustments underscore the complex radiation of Pachycephalidae across Wallacea and Australasia, refined by ultraconserved element data confirming generic boundaries.Description
Physical characteristics
Shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) are medium-sized passerine birds within the family Pachycephalidae, typically measuring 20–25 cm in length and weighing 40–75 g across species. They exhibit a robust build characterized by a strong, upright posture, a relatively short tail, and a stout, slightly hooked bill adapted for gleaning insects and probing crevices. This bill is prominent and pale-based in many species, often contrasting with the surrounding plumage, and measures about 2–3 cm in length depending on the taxon.[15][22][4] Their plumage is generally subdued and cryptic, serving as camouflage in forested and woodland habitats, with coloration ranging from olive-brown or gray on the upperparts to paler gray, buff, or rufous tones on the underparts. Many species feature distinctive pale lores—the area between the eye and bill—and a subtle eye-ring, which can appear whitish or buffy, enhancing their inconspicuous appearance. For instance, the Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) displays predominantly gray plumage with an olive-brown back and white lores, while the Rufous Shrikethrush (C. rufogaster) shows warmer brown upperparts and rufous underparts. Streaking or barring may occur on the breast or flanks in certain taxa, such as the Variable Shrikethrush (C. fortis), but overall patterns remain plain compared to more vibrant family members like whistlers.[15][22][17][28] Sexual dimorphism is minimal in most shrikethrushes, with males and females sharing similar plumage tones, though subtle differences in intensity or extent of rufous hues can occur in species like the Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri). Juveniles are typically duller and more mottled than adults, with softer feathering and reduced contrast in markings, aiding their integration into dense understory environments. Wingspan averages 30–35 cm, with rounded wings suited to maneuverability rather than long-distance flight.[15][4]Vocalizations
Shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) are renowned for their complex and melodious vocalizations, which play key roles in territory defense, mate attraction, and communication. These birds produce a wide array of songs and calls that are generally loud, clear, and rich in tone, often described as flute-like or piping, with frequencies predominantly in the 1–3 kHz range. Both sexes vocalize, though males tend to deliver more elaborate songs, particularly during the breeding season when activity peaks in spring and summer. Vocalizations vary across species and subspecies, reflecting geographic and individual differences, but share a common emphasis on varied phrasing and mimicry capabilities.[29][30] Songs in shrikethrushes are typically composed of discrete notes or syllables delivered in sequences, with durations of 1–3.5 seconds per phrase and intervals of several seconds between strophes. For instance, the Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) features up to 16 phrases in males and 11 in females, combining notes that vary in pitch, volume, and length, often culminating in a drawn-out note or high whistle; example phrases include "purr-purr-purr-quéé-yúle" or "wiihoo-wítu". In the Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha), songs are highly variable, incorporating hooting whistles, churring trills, and whiplash notes reaching 4–5 kHz, with forms like the Tagula Shrikethrush (C. discolor) producing low-pitched (1–3 kHz) piping reminiscent of phrases such as "cup of tea" or "butch-butch-butcher". Dawn singing is particularly notable in species like the Grey Shrikethrush, where males deliver syllables every 5–10 seconds, drawing from a repertoire of up to 20 types that increase in diversity over successive days, suggesting adaptive territorial signaling. Many shrikethrushes, including the Grey and Rufous forms, exhibit mimicry of other bird species, enhancing song complexity.[29][30][31] Calls are shorter and more functional, serving alarm, contact, or distress purposes. Common types include sharp, whistled notes like "whit-whit-whit" or "yorick" in the Grey Shrikethrush, explosive nasal "pwick!" in the Variable Shrikethrush (C. fortis), and raspy "shwit!" in the Rufous Shrikethrush (C. rufogaster). Harsh "churr" or "churi" sounds are used near nests during breeding, while mournful whistles such as "pie-oooh tie-ooh" convey agitation. Subsongs, quieter and more rambling, occur year-round for practice or pair bonding. Overall, vocal repertoires show little sexual dimorphism in structure but greater male investment in volume and persistence, with songs maintaining similarity across subspecies despite broad distributions.[29][30]Distribution and habitat
Geographic range
Shrikethrushes of the genus Colluricincla are confined to the Australo-Papuan biogeographic region, encompassing mainland Australia, the island of New Guinea (spanning Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua), and select offshore islands such as Waigeo, Yapen, and Tagula.[32] This distribution reflects the genus's adaptation to forested and woodland habitats across these landmasses, with no records outside this area.[25] In Australia, species occupy diverse regions from the tropical north to temperate southeast, but are absent from the central arid deserts. The Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) exemplifies this broad Australian presence, ranging from northern Queensland through eastern states to southeastern South Australia and into southwestern Western Australia, while also occurring in southern New Guinea.[22] Endemic Australian taxa include Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri), restricted to the Wet Tropics bioregion of far north Queensland between the Paluma Range and Mount Amos.[33] Similarly, the Sandstone Shrikethrush (C. woodwardi) is limited to rugged sandstone escarpments and gorges in the Kimberley region and Arnhem Land of the Northern Territory.[34] The Rufous Shrikethrush (C. rufogaster) inhabits coastal woodlands and forests from southern New Guinea, Cape York Peninsula and the Torres Strait Islands, southeastern Queensland to northeastern New South Wales.[35] New Guinea hosts the majority of Colluricincla diversity, with species distributed from lowland rainforests to montane elevations across the island and its satellites. The Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha) is widespread in New Guinea's lowlands and hills, as well as surrounding islands like the Aru and D'Entrecasteaux groups, and reaches northern Australia along the Top End coast.[36] The Sooty Shrikethrush (C. tenebrosa) is confined to mid- to high-elevation forests in the central Papuan mountain range, from the Snow Mountains to the Huon Peninsula.[37] Other taxa, such as the Variable Shrikethrush (C. fortis), occupy southeastern New Guinea and nearby islands including Goodenough and Fergusson, while the Mamberamo Shrikethrush (C. obscura) is restricted to northwest-central New Guinea, including Yapen Island, and the Sepik-Ramu Shrikethrush (C. tappenbecki) to northeastern New Guinea from the Sepik-Ramu river drainages to the Astrolabe Bay area.[17][19][20] Island endemics like the Waigeo Shrikethrush (C. affinis) and Tagula Shrikethrush (C. discolor) further highlight the genus's fragmentation across the region's archipelago.[18][38]Habitat preferences
Shrikethrushes of the genus Colluricincla exhibit a broad range of habitat preferences, primarily favoring wooded and forested environments across their Australasian distribution, though specific requirements vary by species and region. Most species are associated with moist, closed-canopy forests, including rainforests and woodlands, where they utilize the understory and mid-strata for foraging and nesting. These birds generally avoid open or arid habitats, showing a preference for areas with dense vegetation cover that provides cover from predators and ample insect prey. Elevational ranges typically span from sea level to mid-altitudes, with some species extending into montane zones up to 2,300 m.[39] The Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica), one of the most widespread species, occupies a diverse array of wooded habitats, including eucalypt- and acacia-dominated forests, Banksia woodlands, coastal heath, riparian zones, and even human-modified areas such as gardens, agricultural lands, and exotic pine plantations. In New Guinea, it extends to savanna woodlands, mangroves, coastal scrub, secondary growth, and coconut or rubber plantations. This adaptability allows it to thrive from sea level to 1,700 m, though it is less common in dense rainforest interiors.[22][2] In contrast, rainforest specialists like the Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha) and Rufous Shrikethrush (C. rufogaster) are predominantly found in subtropical and tropical moist lowland forests, including monsoon forests, gallery forests, swamp forests, mangroves, and secondary regrowth. These species favor low to mid-elevations, with the Little Shrikethrush occasionally reaching 2,300 m in New Guinea's highlands, where it exploits dense understory vegetation. Both show tolerance for disturbed habitats, such as ecologically modified areas, but prefer humid, structurally complex forests for their insect-rich undergrowth.[39][40] Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri), endemic to Australia's Wet Tropics, is restricted to tropical rainforests and adjacent regrowth, rarely venturing into wet sclerophyll forests; it occurs mainly above 400 m but may shift to lower elevations seasonally. The Sandstone Shrikethrush (C. woodwardi) represents a more specialized case, inhabiting rugged sandstone escarpments, gorges, and rocky outcrops with low shrubs, scattered trees, and spinifex ground cover, extending occasionally to limestone, granite, or monsoon forest edges in northern Australia. Other species, such as the Sepik-Ramu Shrikethrush (C. tappenbecki), align with lowland to lower montane rainforests in New Guinea, potentially utilizing secondary wooded areas, though detailed preferences remain understudied. Across the genus, habitat selection emphasizes structural density over specific floristic composition, enabling persistence in fragmented landscapes where core forest patches persist.[41][42][20]Behavior and ecology
Diet and foraging
Shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) are primarily insectivorous, with diets dominated by invertebrates such as insects, spiders, and occasionally mollusks like snails and small crabs, though some species incorporate fruits, seeds, small vertebrates, and even carrion.[43][2] For example, the Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) consumes a broad range including beetles, caterpillars, frogs, lizards, small mammals, birds' eggs, and young birds, supplemented by seasonal fruits and seeds.[2] Similarly, the Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha) focuses on insects, spiders, snails, and crabs, with rare instances of small birds or plant matter.[43] Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri) maintains a narrower diet centered on insects and their larvae, occasionally taking frogs.[44] Foraging occurs across multiple strata in forested habitats, from ground level leaf litter and fallen logs to foliage, branches, trunks, and upper canopies, adapting to availability in rainforests, woodlands, and mangroves.[43][44] The Grey Shrikethrush is notably versatile, spending 20–57% of foraging time on the ground in open areas like eucalypt woodlands, where it probes crevices with sticks or bashes larger prey, while in denser forests it gleans from foliage and trunks at heights up to 14 m. In Tasmania, it relies more on probing (58%) than mainland populations (4–18%), reflecting habitat differences.[45] The Little Shrikethrush forages predominantly in the understory (78%, mostly below 4 m) in New Guinea, using the ground (13%) for bill-probing in debris, and shifts to higher canopies (up to 30 m) in Australian populations.[43] Bower's Shrikethrush targets subcanopy and lower canopy (64.7% combined at 5–17.5 m) in tropical rainforests, descending to lower strata during wet seasons.[44] Primary techniques include gleaning (61–100% across species), where birds pick prey from surfaces, supplemented by sally-striking (2.5–23%) for flying insects and flutter-chasing (up to 17%).[43][44] Larger items like snails are dropped or bashed on hard substrates to access contents, and shrikethrushes occasionally join mixed-species flocks to enhance foraging efficiency.[43] No major seasonal dietary shifts are documented, though altitudinal movements in some species may influence prey access during drier periods.[44]Breeding biology
Shrikethrushes typically breed during the warmer months, with seasonal variations across their range. In Australia, the Grey Shrikethrush (Colluricincla harmonica) initiates breeding from August to February, often attempting up to three nests per season over a median period of 18.3 weeks.[46] In New Guinea, the Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha) shows two breeding peaks: late dry to early wet season (September–December) and late wet to early dry (March, May–June).[47] Nests are constructed by both sexes and consist of a deep, untidy cup made from dead leaves, twigs, bark strips, rootlets, and stems, often bound with spider web, moss, or fine fibers and lined with softer materials such as blackish tendrils. For the Grey Shrikethrush, nests are bulky structures of dried vegetation placed in a fork or on a ledge, typically 1–5 m above ground in shrubs, trees, or artificial sites like buildings, and may be reused in the same location year after year.[46][2] The Little Shrikethrush builds similar nests, usually below 2 m (rarely up to 60 m) in foliage forks, vine tangles, or fern fronds, often unsheltered from above.[47] Territories are defended monogamously for life, spanning up to 10 hectares.[48] Clutch sizes are generally small, with 2–3 eggs laid at intervals of about 24 hours. Eggs of the Grey Shrikethrush are pale greenish-white with reddish-brown spots, while those of the Little Shrikethrush are white to yellowish with dark brown or gray speckles, measuring approximately 23–28 mm in length.[46][47] Incubation lasts 16–19 days and is primarily performed by the female, though males contribute during the day in species like the Grey Shrikethrush, achieving 93–97% coverage with equal sharing. The female incubates alone at night, with bout lengths varying from 10–50 minutes depending on stage.[46][47] Both parents share brooding and feeding duties post-hatching, delivering food at rates of 2–3 visits per hour.[47] Nestlings remain in the nest for 10–16 days, fledging after about 15.8 days on average for the Grey Shrikethrush, with the full breeding cycle (incubation plus nestling) spanning 32.5 days. Parents continue provisioning fledglings, and pairs may renest 16 days after fledging success. Breeding success is higher for experienced pairs (3.1 young per nest) compared to inexperienced ones (1.3 young), with overall fledging rates around 89% in habituated populations.[46]Social and migratory patterns
Shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) exhibit predominantly solitary or paired social structures, with individuals or mated pairs maintaining year-round territories through persistent vocalizations and displays.[22] In species such as the Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica), pairs often engage in cooperative behaviors, including joint nest-building, incubation, and feeding of young, suggesting monogamous pair bonds that may persist across breeding seasons.[22] These birds occasionally join mixed-species foraging flocks, particularly in Australia, where they may collaborate to flush or attack small vertebrates, though such interactions are opportunistic rather than forming stable groups.[22] Territorial defense is vocal and physical, with males singing prominently to delineate boundaries, and aggression toward intruders including chases and supplanting attacks.[49] Across the genus, social organization varies slightly by species and habitat; for instance, Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri) is monogamous, with both sexes sharing incubation, brooding, and feeding duties.[50] Juveniles typically disperse locally after fledging, remaining near natal territories for several months before establishing their own, which limits gene flow in fragmented woodlands as observed in the Grey Shrikethrush.[51] Family groups are rare post-breeding, and there is no evidence of cooperative breeding or helping at the nest in any Colluricincla species.[22] Most shrikethrushes are non-migratory and sedentary, occupying stable home ranges year-round within their preferred habitats.[22] The Grey Shrikethrush shows no large-scale migrations, with 99.5% of ringed individuals recovered within 10 km of their banding site, though some populations exhibit seasonal altitudinal shifts or local dispersal of young, covering up to 22.5 km.[22] Similarly, the Little Shrikethrush (C. megarhyncha) is resident across New Guinea and northern Australia, with no migratory movements reported, relying on consistent resource availability in rainforests and mangroves.[52] Island-endemic species like the Tagula Shrikethrush (C. discolor) are strictly non-migratory, supported by stable ecological conditions on their habitats.[38] In montane forms such as the Sooty Shrikethrush (C. tenebrosa), presumed sedentariness prevails, with no evidence of seasonal relocation despite elevational ranges up to 2,150 m.[26] Overall, any movements are short-distance and driven by juvenile dispersal or minor habitat shifts rather than true migration.[52]Conservation
Population status
The shrikethrushes (genus Colluricincla) comprise several species primarily distributed in Australia and New Guinea, with population statuses assessed by the IUCN Red List through BirdLife International. Most species are categorized as Least Concern, reflecting relatively secure populations across their ranges, though quantitative estimates are often unavailable due to the challenges of surveying dense forest habitats. Trends are generally stable, but habitat degradation poses risks to some, leading to suspected declines in others. One species stands out as Vulnerable, highlighting localized conservation concerns.| Species | Common Name | IUCN Status | Population Size | Trend | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C. harmonica | Grey Shrikethrush | Least Concern | Unknown | Decreasing | Widespread in Australia and New Guinea; decline attributed to habitat loss and hunting.[25] |
| C. megarhyncha | Little Shrikethrush | Least Concern | Unknown | Stable | Common in New Guinea lowlands; no major threats identified.[53] |
| C. boweri | Bower's Shrikethrush | Vulnerable | Unknown | Decreasing | Restricted to Cape York Peninsula, Australia; threatened by habitat clearance and small range (A2bc+3c+4bc criteria).[33] |
| C. tenebrosa | Sooty Shrikethrush | Least Concern | Unknown | Stable | Rare in New Guinea highlands; limited data but no evidence of decline.[37] |
| C. rufogaster | Rufous Shrikethrush | Least Concern | Unknown | Stable | Fairly common in Australian wet forests; tolerant of some disturbance. |
| C. woodwardi | Sandstone Shrikethrush | Least Concern | Unknown | Stable | Locally common in northern Australian savannas; no significant threats.[23] |
Threats and conservation measures
Shrikethrushes of the genus Colluricincla are generally not facing severe global threats, with most species classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List due to stable populations and wide distributions across Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands.[53][37][25] However, habitat degradation from logging, deforestation, and urbanization poses localized risks, particularly in Australian and New Guinean rainforests where these birds prefer dense understory vegetation. For instance, the Grey Shrikethrush (C. harmonica) shows population declines in eastern Australia linked to urban expansion and habitat fragmentation, with higher densities observed in unlogged forests compared to altered areas.[22][54] Among the species, Bower's Shrikethrush (C. boweri), endemic to the Wet Tropics of north Queensland, is the most vulnerable, listed as Vulnerable under IUCN criteria A2bc+3c+4bc owing to a projected 30–49% decline in mature individuals over three generations from 2010 to 2022. Primary threats include climate change-induced heat waves and habitat shifts, which reduce food availability and exacerbate sensitivity in this upland rainforest specialist.[33] The Waigeo Shrikethrush (C. affinis), a single-island endemic on Waigeo in Indonesia, faces habitat loss from logging and fragmentation, though its overall status remains Least Concern with no quantified declines.[55] Additional pressures across the genus include predation by domestic cats in suburban fringes and occasional impacts from extreme fires in rainforests, which can disrupt breeding and foraging.[54][56] Conservation measures for shrikethrushes emphasize habitat protection, with much of their ranges falling within protected areas such as national parks in Australia and reserves in New Guinea. For example, over 90% of Bower's Shrikethrush habitat is safeguarded, supporting its common status within this restricted area despite ongoing declines.[33][4] BirdLife International identifies key sites across the genus's range for monitoring, but no species-specific recovery plans or invasive species controls are currently implemented.[53][37] For threatened taxa like Bower's, recommended actions include research on climate resilience, population monitoring, and adaptation strategies such as corridor creation to mitigate fragmentation.[33] Broader efforts, including reduced logging in Indonesian islands and cat control in Australian suburbs, indirectly benefit the group by preserving forested habitats essential for their insectivorous diets and breeding.[55][54]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/shrikethrush