Hubbry Logo
Southern Bantoid languagesSouthern Bantoid languagesMain
Open search
Southern Bantoid languages
Community hub
Southern Bantoid languages
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Southern Bantoid languages
Southern Bantoid languages
Southern Bantoid languages
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Southern Bantoid
Geographic
distribution		Sub-Saharan Africa, but not further west than Nigeria
Linguistic classificationNiger–Congo?
Proto-languageProto-Southern Bantoid
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottologsout3152
The Southern Bantoid languages shown within the Niger–Congo language family. Non-Southern Bantoid languages are greyscale.

Southern Bantoid (or South Bantoid) is a branch of the Bantoid language family. It consists of the Bantu languages along with several small branches and isolates of eastern Nigeria and west-central Cameroon (though the affiliation of some branches is uncertain). Since the Bantu languages are spoken across most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Bantoid comprises 643 languages as counted by Ethnologue, though many of these are mutually intelligible.[1]

History

[edit]
The Southern Bantoid branches of Nigeria and Cameroon

Southern Bantoid was first introduced by Williamson in a proposal that divided Bantoid into North and South branches.[2]

The unity of the North Bantoid group was subsequently called into question, and Bantoid itself may be polyphyletic, but the work did establish Southern Bantoid as a valid genetic unit, something that has not happened for (Narrow) Bantu itself.[3]

Internal classification

[edit]

According to Williamson and Blench, Southern Bantoid is divided into the various Narrow Bantu languages, Jarawan, Tivoid, Beboid, Mamfe (Nyang), Grassfields and Ekoid families.[4] The Bendi languages are of uncertain classification; they have traditionally been classified with Cross River, but they may actually be Southern Bantoid.[5] Blench suggests that Tivoid, Momo (ex-Grassfields) and East Beboid may form a group, perhaps with the uncertain languages Esimbi and Buru–Angwe:[6]

Grollemund (2012)

[edit]

Classification of Southern Bantoid by Grollemund (2012):[7]

Southern Bantoid

Numerals

[edit]

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:

Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bantu Luganda emu bbiri ssatu nnya ttaano mukaaga musanvu munaana mwenda kkumi
Ndemli Ndemli mɔ̀hɔ́ ífɛ́ ítáá ítʃìjè ítâŋ tóhó sàᵐbá fɔ̀ːmɔ́ bùʔɛ̀ dʒòm
Tikar Tikar mbɔʔ ɓî lê ɲî ʃæ̃̂ ɸyulu ʃâmɓì nìnì tæ̂nì wûm
Tivoid Esimbi (1) kēnə̄ mə̄rākpə̄ mākə̄lə̄ mōɲī mātə̄nə̀ mālālə̄ mātə̄nə̀ mə̄rākpə̄ (5+ 2) mōɲìōɲī (4+ 4) mātə̄nə̀ mōɲī (5 + 4) būɣù
Tivoid Esimbi (2) ɔ-nə râkpə á-kələ oɲí a-tənə a-lələ à-tən râkpə (5+ 2) ò-ɲi o-ɲí (4+ 4) à-tən o-ɲí (5 + 4) bùɣù
Tivoid Ipulo émɔ̀ víàl vétàt véɲì vétàn véɾátúm véɾátúm nɔ̀mɔ̀ (6 + 1) víɲèɲí víɲèɲí nɔ̀mɔ̀ (8 + 1) épɔ́ːt
Tivoid Iyive mɔ̌m hjâl tàt ɲîn táŋə̀n kə̀lə̀kə̀tàt kə̀lə̀kə̀tàt kàt mɔ̀mú (6 + 1) kíníkìnì táŋìɲìn (5 + 4 ??) pùɛ̀
Tivoid Tiv mɔ̀ḿ / mɔ́m úhár útáŕ únjì: útã́ː átérátáŕ útã́ː kàː úhár (5 + 2) ániènì útã́ː kàː únjì: (5 + 4) púè / púwè
Grassfields, Menchum Befang móʔ (~mʊ́ʔ) fe táí ɪ̀kᶣà (ɪ̀kɥà) ɪ̀tʲə̂n ⁿdʊ̀fú èkᶣànátáí (4 and 3) i.e. (4+ 3) éfómó étʲə̂nékᶣà (5+ 4) éɣúm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Fe'fe' (1) nshʉ̀' pʉ́ɑ́ tāā kwɑ̀ tî ntōhō sə̀ǝ̀mbʉ́ɑ́ hə̀ǝ̄ vʉ̄'ʉ̄ ghām
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Fe'fe' (2) nshʉ̀' pʉ́ɑ́ táá kwɑ̀ tî ntōhō sə̀ǝ̀mbʉ́ɑ́ hə̀ə̄ vʉ̄'ʉ̄ ghām
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Ghomala yaə́mu' yaə́pʉə́ə́ yaə́tâ yápfʉə̀ yaə́tɔ̂ ntɔkɔ́ sɔmbʉə́ə́ hɔ̌m vʉ'ʉ́ ghǎm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Mengaka (Megaka) yimɔ'ɔ / mɔ' yipá / pa yitét / tét nəkwɔ̀ yitɛ ntɔ̌ sambá nəhǎ nəvø' nəghám
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Nda'nda' ncə̀' pə́ə́ té kwò tɔ̀ tó sòmbə́ə́ χóp vɨ̀ʔ gháp
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Ngiemboon mmɔ́'ɔ [m̩̀mɔ́ʔɔ́] mbʉ́a [m̩̀bɯ́á] ntá [ǹ̩tá] lekùa [lèkùȁ] ntʉ̂a [ɳ̩̀ʈɯ́à] ntɔɡɔ́ [ǹ̩tɔ̀ʁɔ́] sɔ̀ɔn mbʉ́a [sɔ̃̀ːm̩̀bɯ́á] lefɔ̌ɔn [lèfɔ̃̌ː] lepfwɔʼɔ́ [lèpfwɔ̀ʔɔ́] leɡém [lèɣə́m]
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Ngomba yɛ́mɔ́' yɛ́pá yɛ́tát yɛ́nɛ́kwa yɛ́taa yɛ́nɛ́ntúkú saambá yɛ́nɛ́fɔ́m yɛ́nɛ́pfú'ú nɛɡɛ́m
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Ngombale tá pwó tárə kwo taa toɣə saabwó ləfaa ləpfuʔú ləɡham
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Ngwe mɔ'fi -biə -tat lɛkwə -tɛ -ntuli saambiə lɛfɔ lɛʙə̌ʔá lɛ̄ɣɛ̀m
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Bamileke Yemba (Dschang) wɔ́mɔ'ɔ́ mémpīā métɛ́t lekua metáa ntokó esambīā lefaá levu'ɔ́ legēm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Awing (1) mɔ̌ pɛ́ térə́ nə̀kwà ténə̀ tóɣə́ sàmbɛ́ nə̀fémə́ nə̀púʔə́ nə̀ɣə́mə́
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Awing (2) mɔh pəːə teːre kwa taa ntuɡu saːmbe nɨfeːme nɨpueh nɨɡeːme
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Bafut (1) mɔ́ʔɔ̂ báà tárə̀ kwàà ntáà ntóʔò sàmbà fwámə́ kwálìʔí / nɨ̀bùʔû tàwûm / nɨ̀wûm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Bafut (2) mɔʔɔ̂ baa tarə kwà ǹtaà ntoʔo sàmbà fwamə kwalɛ̀ʔɛ tàɡhûm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Bambili-Bambui (1) mɔ̀ʔɔ̀ bə̀ɡə̀ tyè kyà tɔ̀ɔ̀ ntúú ʃàmbà nɨ̀fɔ̀ɔ̀ nɨ̀bɛ̀ʔɛ̀ nɨ̀ɣám
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Bambili-Bambui (2) mɔʔɔ bɨɡə tyé kɥa tɔː n-túː ʃambá nɨ-fɔː nɨ-bɛʔɛ nɨ-ɣám
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Bamukumbit m²mɔʔɔ⁷⁷ or tɑʔ bɛ, bɨbɛ, mɨmbɛ tɑrɨ, bɨ²tɑː⁷⁵ɾə², mɨntɑrɨ nɨkwɑ, bɨnɨkwɑ, mɨnkwɑ jitɑ̃, bɨtɑ̃, mɨntɑ̃ jintoʔ, bɨntoʔ, mɨntoʔ ʃɑmbɛ, bɨʃɑmbɛ, mɨʃɑmbɛ nɨfɔ̃, bɨnɨfɔ̃, mɨnɨfɔ̃ nɨ²buʔ²¹, bɨnɨbuʔ, mɨnɨbuʔ nɨwũ
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Mendankwe-Nkwen mɔ̄h bəɡə tarɔ kua tan ntɔ̄ sāmbā nəfah nəbuɔ̄h nəɣəm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Mbəkum (Mankon) (1) mɔ́ʔɔ̂ bâ tárə̂ kwà tánə̀ ntúɣú sàmbà nɨ̀fámə́ nɨ̀bùʔû nɨ̀ɣɨ̂m
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Ngemba (Mankon) (2) mɔ́ʔɔ́ bǎ táré kwà tâŋ ntúɡhə̂ sámbǎ nɨ̀fə̂ŋ nɨ̀bvùʔə́ nɨ̀wúmə̀
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Ngemba Pinyin mɔ́ʔɔ̀ páá táɾə̀ kwà tânə̀ ǹtô sàmbâ nə̀fámə̂ nə̀pùʔə̂ nə̀wúmə̀
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe Kwaja mũũ ˧˩ baa ˦˧ ta ˦ kɥ ˧˩ tɔ̃ ˦˧ tɔ̃ ˨ fũ ˧ sə ˨ mba ˧˨ wɔ ˦ ŋkxɨt ˦ bə ˦ ʁət ˨ wəm˦
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe Limbum (1) mɔ̀ʔsíɾ báː táːɾ kjèː tâ ntūːnfú sàːmbâ wāːmí bɨ̀ʔɨ̂ / bɨ̀ɾɨ̂ ɾɨ
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe Limbum (2) mòʔsír báā táar kyèe tâ ntūunfú sàambâ wāamé bʉ̀ʔʉ̂ rʉ̂ʉ
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe Mfumte (Koffa) mìʔincí bʉ́à tó kweé tóŋ ntunfúu sɔ̀mbaa wáamí búum húʔum
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe Yamba mòʔfís bá tɛʔ kwè tàŋ ntuuŋfú sàmbâ fwamɛʔ və̀kɛʔ húm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Baba1 (Papia) (1) mɔ̀ʔ mbá ntí kúá tè ntíóʔó kpataɾ fómə́ ʃìpó kòɣəm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Baba (Papia) (2) jimàa / jímɔ̀ jípàa / ji mbá ji tára / ji ntíi ji kwà / kpa ji tè ntúwó / tuʔo kwàtar / kpataɾ fómə tʃìpóo / ʃipɔ kòɣəm / ɣəm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bafanji jimuʔu / muʔu³⁵ / tiʔæ⁵³ jipɑɑ / piæ³⁵ jitii / tii³⁵ jikwə / kwə³ jintɑ̃ĩ⁵³ / tɑ̃ĩ⁵³ jintou / ntou⁵ jikwætæ / kwætæ³⁵ jifũɔ̃ / fũɔ̃⁵ jipuʔu / puʔu³⁵ jiɣwũ / ɣwũ⁵³
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bamali (Papia) mʷəʔə pɛt tɛt kʷa ta ntɔ kʷatʃø nəfɔː nəpuʔu nəɣu
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bambalang tɛʔi paa tɾe kʰwɛ tiɛ̃ ntiɡaw kwatʃəɨ fuõ ndipoʔu wuŋ
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bamun (Shupamen) (1) mòʔ mbàá tɛ́t pkà tɛ̀n ntú sàmbà fámə́ kóvýʔ ɣə́m
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bamun (Bamum) (2) ímoʔ ípáa ítɛt ípkwà ítɛ̀n ítúu ísamba ífámə ívʉ̀ʔʉ́ ɣóm
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Bangolan mɔ̀ mbǎ tét kpà tíjē ǹtúhù kpáte̙t fó tʃɛ̀ŋɔ́ʔɔ̀ vwó
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Medumba ncʉ' bɑhɑ tad kwɑ̀ tɑ̂n ntogǝ sɑ̀mmbɑhɑ fomə bwə̀'ə gham
Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nun Mungaka (Bali) ɲín íbáā itɛ́t ikwà itàn intwúʔ kwàtát ifúm sʉibɔ́m ɣóm / wɔm
Grassfields, Momo Moghamo ímɔ̄ʔ íbē ítád íkwē ítã tìfóɣə́ sàmbé fàmí àbōɡ ìɣùm
Grassfields, Momo Mundani yea-mɔʔ bebe betat bekpì betã̀ã̂ bentùa besã̀ã̀mbe befã̀ã bebə̀ʔa èɣɛm
Grassfields, Momo Ngamambo (1) -mɔ̀ʔ be tád kwè tân rɨ̀fúɣɔ́ / rʌ̀fúɣɔ́ sàmbe fàam bɔ̀ɔk ɣum
Grassfields, Momo Ngamambo (2) -mɔ̀ʔ bé tɑ́t kwè tɑ̂n rɨ̀fúɣə́ sɑ̀mbé fɑ̌m ə̀bɔ̌k wúm
Grassfields, Momo Ngie (1) ìfìŋ ìbǐɡə ìtá ìkjùɡə ìtɨŋ ìfəw ìsàmbìɡə ìfɨŋì àbəw ìwùm
Grassfields, Momo Ngie (2) ìfìŋ ìbǐɡ ìtá ìkɥǐɡ ìtʉ̄ŋ ìfœ́ ìsàmbǐɡ ìfɔ̌ŋ àbœ̀ ìwùm
Grassfields, Momo Ngwo ŋwāʔ fjēː tɛ́d kwɛ̀ tân m̀fó sàːmbjɛ̄ fwɔ̌ː kɔ̄ː wūm
Grassfields, Ring Bamunka (1) mɔ̌ʔ buǔ tiâ kʷì taâ ntɨ̌ʔ tə́kʷiǐtiâ (4 + 3) ? fɔ̌ŋ bɔ̀mɔ̂ʔ (10–1) ? wûŋ
Grassfields, Ring Bamunka (2) mɔʔ L buː RF tià F kʷi L ta F ntʉ̀ʔ F təkʷitia HHF (4 + 3) ? fɔ̃ R bɔmɔʔ R (10–1) ? wũ L
Grassfields, Ring Wushi mùɔ́ʔ bā tɨ́ə̀ʔ tsə̀ tɛ́ɛ̀ ǹtùɔ́ʔ tsə̀tɨ́ə̀ʔ (4 + 3) fə́mə́ bùfə̀mùɔ́ʔ (10–1) ? vóó
Grassfields, Ring, Center Babanki (Kejom) mùʔ bò táʔ kàʔ tàn ǹtʉ̀fə́ sòmbô fwòmə́ àbʉ̀múʔ (10–1) wúm
Grassfields, Ring, Center Bum mɔ̀k bà tât kìk tân túfá sàmbâ fâmá búlá mɔ̀k (10–1) ìwûm
Grassfields, Ring, Center Kom nòʔ bò tal kàe / kæ̀ tâyn ntufa nsòmbo / nsombô nfama bulamòʔ ivɨm
Grassfields, Ring, Center Kuk mɔ̀ʔ bòː tóː kɪ̀ːkò tâː tóːfə́ sōːmboː fāːmə́ buː́mɔ̀ʔ (? -1)? íɣə̄m
Grassfields, Ring, Center Kung mɔ̀ʔ bə̀ː tə́ː kʲə̀kə̀ tàʲ tūːfə́ sɛ̀ːⁿbɛː fɛ̀ːmə́ bólímɔ̀ʔ (? -1)? ìɣə̄m
Grassfields, Ring, Center Mmen mɔ̀ʔ pɛ᷆ tá kjā tâɲ tūfɜ́ sɛ̄mbɛ᷇ fāmmɜ́ pʊ̄lɜ̄mɔ̀ʔ (10–1) ēɣə̆̀m
Grassfields, Ring, Center Oku mɔɔ baa taa kwɪʲ tan ntuufə saamba ɛfaamə buumək ɛvəm
Grassfields, Ring, East Lamnso' mɔ̀ʔɔ́n bàà táár kwɛ̀ɛ̀ tàn ntùùfú sààmbà wāāmɛ́ bvə̀ʔə̀ ɣwə̀m
Grassfields, Ring, West Aghem (1) mɔ̀ʔ bə̀ˠà tə́ˠá tʃʲàkò tɛ̀ʲ tǔ̞ː sə̀ˠàⁿbə̄ˠā ɪ́fǎː tɛ̄ⁿdzū̞ˠū̞ ɪ́ɣə̄m
Grassfields, Ring, West Aghem (2) mɒ̀ʔ bɨ̀ɣà tɨ́ɣá cìakɔ̀ tɛ̀ tǒo sɨ̀ɣàmbɨ̀ɣà ɛ́ʔfáa tèndzùɣò é-ʔɣɨ́m
Grassfields, Ring, West Isu mɔ̀ʔ bèː(bè) tsíː tʃàʔì tàː ntsìfɔ́ŋ sèmbè fáːmə́ bùkə́ ívə̄m
Grassfields, Ring, West Laimbue mòʔ bò tó kjə̀ʔ táì tɔ̀ɔ́ sùmbô ìfámá bə́lə́mɔ̀ʔ ɨɣɨ́m
Grassfields, Ring, West Weh mó bə̀ɣə́ tə̀ɣə́ kaikə́ tá tùbə́ səɣ-mbə̀ɣ ifám tàndzú iɣə́m
Yemne-Kimbi Ajumbu mʷə̀ fʲə̂ŋ tò ɲì kpɛ̂ kʲàtò nàtò nànà kpɛ̂ɲì kòɲ
Yemne-Kimbi Mundabli m¹.mö³² m¹.fɪe³² n¹.tɔ³² n¹.de² kpɔn² tʃi²ta² nɔ¹³tɔ² ne¹ne¹ kpa²ne¹ dzo²fɯ²
Yemne-Kimbi Mungbam (Abar) (1) -m̩̀ / -mù -fìn /-fá -tì / -tēè -ɲ̩̀ / -nì kpáān / kpōa lētɛ̀ / -lētè -ɲ̩̀tɛ̄ / -ɲītɛ -nə̀nè / -nə̄nè kpánə̀ɲ̩̀ / kpānāɲì dʒūhɛ́ / dʒóhó
Yemne-Kimbi Munbam (Munken) (2) -mwə́nə̀ / -mù / – mù -fè /-fō / -fé -tɛ̄ / -tēa / -tè -ɲə̄nə́ / -ɲì / -ɲì kpòōnə́ / kpɛ̄n / kpààɲì -lētɛ̀ / -létēa / -lētɛ̀ -ɲītɛ̀ / -ɲītə̀ / -ɲītɛ̀ -ɲīɲì ~ -ɲìɲì / --ɲìɲì / -ɲìɲì kpɔ̄ndʒùɲì / -ɲìnkpɛ̄n kwîn / kwîn / kwɔ̂n

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Southern Bantoid languages

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Southern Bantoid languages constitute a primary branch of the , which belong to the Benue-Congo subfamily within the vast Niger-Congo language phylum, encompassing around 678 distinct languages spoken across . This group is distinguished by its transitional position between northwestern Benue-Congo languages and the expansive Bantu subgroup, featuring shared innovations such as complex systems and tonal phonologies, though with significant diversity in morphology and syntax among its members. The Southern Bantoid branch is internally divided into Narrow Bantu—comprising over 500 languages and representing the largest expansion of any African —and several non-Bantu subgroups, including the Tivoid (e.g., Tiv), Ekoid (e.g., Ejagham), Beboid (e.g., Naki), Nyang (e.g., Akum), Grassfields (e.g., Lamnso'), Jarawan, and others like Furu and Tikar. These non-Bantu languages, numbering around 130 in total, exhibit eroded or simplified prefixes compared to Bantu, with affixes typically consisting of consonants or short vowels attached to noun stems, and they frequently display high degrees of tonal complexity. Geographically, Southern Bantoid languages are concentrated in West and Central Africa, with non-Bantu varieties primarily in eastern and the Grassfields region of western , while Narrow Bantu languages extend across Central, Eastern, and , from to and as far east as and . This distribution reflects historical migrations, particularly the starting around 3,000–5,000 years ago, which spread agropastoralist societies and linguistic traits southward and eastward from a probable homeland near the - border. The total speaker population exceeds 350 million as of 2015, predominantly due to like , Zulu, and , making Southern Bantoid one of the most demographically significant linguistic groupings globally. Linguistically, Southern Bantoid languages are characterized by agglutinative structures, where grammatical information is conveyed through prefixes, suffixes, and infixes, alongside pervasive agreement that influences verbs, adjectives, and pronouns. Tones play a crucial role in distinguishing lexical and grammatical meanings, with many languages employing 2–4 contrastive tones, and verb extensions (e.g., , applicative) are common, though less uniform outside Bantu. Ongoing research highlights their role in reconstructing Proto-Benue-Congo, with innovations like labial-velar stops and specific numeral systems providing evidence for deeper Niger-Congo affiliations.

Introduction

Definition and Scope

Southern Bantoid, also known as South Bantoid, is proposed as a genetic subgroup within the Bantoid branch of the Benue-Congo languages, part of the larger Niger-Congo phylum. This classification excludes the Northern Bantoid languages, which include groups such as Mambiloid, Dakoid, and Tikar, and instead encompasses the Bantu languages along with several closely related non-Bantu clusters. The division into Northern and Southern Bantoid was first formally suggested by Kay Williamson and Roger Blench in 1987, based on comparative lexical and morphological evidence that highlighted shared innovations among the southern groups not present in the northern ones. The scope of Southern Bantoid is extensive, comprising 678 languages according to the 28th edition of , making it one of the most diverse branches in Benue-Congo. These languages are primarily spoken in regions spanning eastern , , and further southward and eastward into Central, Eastern, and . The core of this subgroup is the (Narrow Bantu), which alone account for over 500 distinct languages and represent the largest and most widely studied constituent, characterized by innovations in systems and verbal morphology that distinguish them from other Benue-Congo branches. In addition to Bantu, Southern Bantoid includes non-Bantu subgroups such as Tivoid (around 20 languages), Ekoid, Beboid, Grassfields (over 70 languages), Mamfe (also known as Nyang, with about 3-4 languages), and Jarawan (roughly 6-10 lects), each contributing to the branch's internal diversity through unique phonological and grammatical features. While the overall genetic unity of the remains a subject of debate—often described as a geographic or typological grouping rather than a strictly phylogenetic one due to the lack of clear shared isoglosses—Southern Bantoid is considered more securely established as a coherent unit. This stability stems from stronger evidence of common ancestry among its members, including lexical retentions and morphological parallels with Proto-Bantu, as supported by lexicostatistical analyses and comparative reconstructions. Critics, however, note that some subgroups like Jarawan exhibit mixed features possibly due to historical contact and migration, underscoring the need for further phylogenetic studies to refine the boundaries.

Geographic and Demographic Overview

Southern Bantoid languages are primarily concentrated in eastern and , with their distribution extending southward and eastward across Central, Eastern, and through the historical . This expansion, originating near the Nigeria-Cameroon border approximately 4,000 to 6,000 years ago, facilitated the spread of —the dominant subgroup—via migrations through the Central African rainforest and into regions east of the and as far south as modern-day and . Non-Bantu Southern Bantoid languages, which include smaller branches such as Tivoid and , are mostly confined to and western . The Tivoid languages, for example, are spoken in the valley along the Nigeria- border, while occupy the highlands of western , particularly in the North-West Region. The total number of speakers of Southern Bantoid languages exceeds 350 million, overwhelmingly accounted for by the Bantu subgroup, which alone has approximately 350 million speakers across . In contrast, non-Bantu groups have far fewer speakers; for instance, the Tivoid branch, dominated by Tiv, has around 5 million speakers primarily in . These demographic patterns reflect the profound influence of the Bantu migrations, which reshaped linguistic landscapes by integrating or displacing earlier populations over millennia.

Historical Classification

Early Proposals

The term "Bantoid" was first introduced by Gottlieb A. Krause in 1895 to describe languages exhibiting vocabulary resemblances to Bantu, particularly in the context of linking Bantu with adjacent non-Bantu languages in . This proposal aimed to capture transitional forms but was largely overlooked until its revival in later classifications. Joseph Greenberg's 1963 classification marked a significant advancement by incorporating Bantu and its closest relatives, such as Tivoid and Ekoid languages, into a Bantoid subgroup within the broader Benue-Congo branch of Niger-Congo. Greenberg emphasized genetic relationships over typological similarities, positioning these languages as coordinate branches that shared a common ancestry with Bantu, thus expanding the scope beyond strictly Bantu forms. Malcolm Guthrie's work in 1948 and 1971 further shaped early views through his zonal system for , where Zones A and B encompassed western and northwestern varieties, including some related non-Bantu languages like those in the Lundu group (A10). This approach highlighted potential shared origins between Ekoid and Zone A languages but drew criticism for its geographic bias, prioritizing data from eastern and while underrepresenting Nigerian varieties. Initial debates also surrounded non-Bantu groups like Jarawan, with early proposals questioning whether they represented Bantu offshoots or distinct Bantoid entities due to their scattered distribution and mixed lexical features. Scholars like Guthrie excluded Jarawan from core Bantu zones, viewing it as peripheral, which fueled ongoing discussions about its precise affiliation within the emerging Bantoid framework.

Establishment of Southern Bantoid

The establishment of Southern Bantoid as a distinct branch within emerged during the 1970s and 1980s through comparative linguistic work that identified shared innovations distinguishing it from northern groups. Kay Williamson's 1971 analysis of Benue-Congo languages laid foundational groundwork by classifying certain non-Bantu languages, such as Ekoid, as part of a broader "Wide Bantu" or Bantoid continuum, emphasizing lexical and morphological parallels with Bantu. This was expanded in her 1989 overview, where she proposed dividing Bantoid into Northern Bantoid (including Mambiloid and Dakoid) and Southern Bantoid, positing the latter as a genetic unit based on common phonological and grammatical innovations, such as systems and verb extensions, that unified its members more closely than with northern varieties. Southern Bantoid was formalized with Bantu at its core, encompassing non-Bantu subgroups like Tivoid, Beboid, and , which exhibit intermediate features such as reduced but persistent markers and tonal systems bridging Bantu and more divergent Benue-Congo forms. Williamson's framework highlighted how these groups shared lexical roots for basic vocabulary (e.g., body parts and numerals) and syntactic patterns, such as serial verb constructions, that supported their coherence as a southern . This inclusion underscored Southern Bantoid's role as a transitional zone, with approximately 150-200 languages spanning and , distinct from the more isolated northern Bantoid clusters. Debates over isolate languages like Bendi, initially classified within Cross River due to geographic proximity, intensified in the late 1990s and early 2000s, ultimately supporting their reassignment to Southern Bantoid. Roger Blench's 2001 analysis argued that Bendi languages share conservative prefixes (e.g., *ri- for "head") and lexical items (e.g., roots for "refuse" akin to Ekoid *tE^n) more closely with Southern Bantoid than with Cross River groups, lacking exclusive links to the latter without broader East Benue-Congo parallels. This shift, based on comparative wordlists and morphological evidence, reinforced Southern Bantoid's boundaries while highlighting data gaps in underdocumented isolates. Lexicostatistical methods gained prominence in the to validate these classifications, providing quantitative support for closer ties among Southern Bantoid groups. Blench and Williamson's preliminary classification employed counting across basic vocabulary lists to construct trees showing Southern Bantoid's internal clustering, with percentages (often 30-50% among subgroups) exceeding those with Northern Bantoid. These approaches, including furthest-neighbor analysis, confirmed shared innovations like tonal correspondences and confirmed the branch's genetic unity without over-relying on geographic factors.

Current Classification

Major Subgroups

The major subgroups of Southern Bantoid languages encompass a diverse array of branches, with Narrow Bantu forming by far the largest and most widespread. Narrow Bantu comprises approximately 535 languages spoken across , from to , representing the expansive and characterized by shared innovations such as systems and verbal extensions. Tivoid includes around 15-20 languages primarily spoken in southeastern and western , with Tiv being the most prominent example spoken by approximately 5.2 million people (2024); these languages feature distinctive double affixation in verbs and are debated in their precise placement relative to other Southern Bantoid branches. Ekoid consists of about 20 closely related languages in the Cross River region of southeastern and southwestern , exemplified by Ejagham (also known as Ekoi), which is notable for its association with the ideographic script used for communication and rituals. Beboid encompasses approximately 10 languages in the Grassfields of southwestern and eastern , including examples like Naki and Noni; however, its internal unity has been questioned, with proposals suggesting it may not form a single genetic clade but rather a influenced by contact. The Grassfields (or Wide Grassfields) subgroup features around 67 languages in the highlands of western , with major examples such as Bamileke and the Ring languages; this branch is well-documented and includes subbranches like Momo (e.g., Ngie, Meta') known for complex tonal systems and noun classification. Mamfe (also called Nyang) is a small cluster of about three languages spoken in southwestern Cameroon, including Denya and Kenyang, which have benefited from literacy programs and exhibit reduced noun class systems compared to other Southern Bantoid groups. Jarawan comprises approximately 10-20 languages mainly in northeastern Nigeria (e.g., Bauchi State), with examples like Mbula-Bwazza and Gubi; its affiliation is debated, with some evidence suggesting links to Narrow Bantu (possibly as an A60 group) due to lexical and morphological parallels, though extensive borrowing complicates reconstruction. Other minor or uncertain subgroups include Bendi (reclassified from Cross River to Southern Bantoid, with languages like Arara spoken in eastern ), Momo (integrated within Grassfields but sometimes treated separately), and isolates like Furu and Tikar; these often involve ongoing debates over genetic versus areal relationships.

Williamson and Blench Framework

The Williamson and Blench framework provides a foundational of Southern Bantoid languages, initially proposed in their 1987 work and elaborated in subsequent publications. This approach divides Southern Bantoid into several major subgroups: Narrow Bantu, Jarawan, Tivoid, Beboid, Mamfe, Grassfields, and Ekoid. These divisions are based on lexical and morphological evidence, emphasizing shared features that distinguish Southern Bantoid from Northern Bantoid subgroups. In the 2000s, Roger Blench refined this framework through updated analyses. He reclassified the Bendi languages, previously grouped under Cross River, as part of Southern Bantoid based on comparative lexical data showing affinities with Bantoid markers. Blench also proposed a Tivoid-Momo-East Beboid , linking these groups via innovations in verbal extensions and pronominal systems. Additionally, Jarawan was repositioned as a Bantu outlier within Narrow Bantu, rather than a higher-level Southern Bantoid branch, due to its retention of Bantu-like pairings despite divergent . The framework relies on comparative wordlists, such as the Benue-Congo Comparative Wordlist, to identify cognates across subgroups, supplemented by analysis of shared innovations like the systems that pair prefixes for agreement in verbs and adjectives. For instance, Ekoid and share class 7/8 prefixes innovated from Proto-Benue-Congo forms, supporting their placement as coordinate branches. These methods prioritize morphological parallels over purely to establish genetic links. Criticisms of the framework highlight its overreliance on limited data for certain isolates, such as Nyang, where sparse lexical documentation leads to tentative affiliations without robust shared innovations. This has prompted calls for expanded fieldwork to verify subgroup boundaries, particularly for underdocumented languages like Nyang in the Grassfields region.

Phylogenetic Approaches

Phylogenetic approaches to classifying Southern Bantoid languages have increasingly relied on computational methods, particularly , to model relationships among Bantu and non-Bantu subgroups. A seminal study by Grollemund (2012) constructed a that integrates with non-Bantu Southern Bantoid branches, positioning Nyang as basal, followed sequentially by Ekoid, Beboid, Tivoid, Grassfields, and Bantu; this analysis drew on lexical data from over 100 languages using 200-wordlists to infer divergence patterns and shared innovations. Building on this foundation, Grollemund et al. (2015) refined the phylogeny through a Bayesian posterior sample of 100 trees derived from 424 Bantu and related languages, estimating the Bantu expansion's onset at approximately 4,000–5,000 years ago and highlighting how habitat influences migration routes, such as savannah corridors around the Congo rainforest. Earlier work by Rexová et al. (2006) supported the coherence of the Bantoid clade using cladistic methods on combined lexical and grammatical data from 87 languages, reinforcing Southern Bantoid's position within Benue-Congo by demonstrating robust internal branching. Recent critiques have underscored limitations in these models. Blench (2024) argues that Grollemund's (2012) sampling of non-Bantu Southern Bantoid languages was haphazard and incomplete, excluding key branches, while the absence of explicit cognacy judgments undermines tree reliability; additionally, the assumption of Beboid unity in such phylogenies is outdated, as evidence suggests it lacks genetic coherence. A 2025 review further refines Bantu phylogenies by correlating linguistic trees with evidence, revealing nuanced admixture events that challenge purely lexical-based divergences in Southern Bantoid. Despite advances, phylogenetic studies of Southern Bantoid face significant gaps, including scarce data for language isolates and underrepresentation of non-Bantu varieties, which hampers comprehensive tree construction and requires expanded sampling for more inclusive models.

Linguistic Characteristics

Phonology

Southern Bantoid languages exhibit a range of phonological features that reflect both shared Niger-Congo inheritance and subgroup-specific innovations, with and consonant complexity being particularly prominent. Most languages in this branch are tonal, typically employing two to four contrastive tones, which serve to distinguish lexical items and grammatical functions across the family. For instance, in many Southern Bantoid languages, high and low tones are basic, with mid and downstepped variants occurring in subsets like the Grassfields group. Prenasalized stops, such as /mb/, /nd/, and /ŋg/, are widespread and reconstructible to early stages of the branch, functioning as single phonemes in onsets. Vowel systems vary significantly, but advanced tongue root (ATR) harmony is a common feature in non-Bantu subgroups, where vowels are divided into [+ATR] and [-ATR] sets that harmonize within words. In Grassfields languages, such as those spoken in the Cameroon Grassfields, this harmony often applies root-controlled, affecting suffixes and creating phonotactic constraints on vowel sequences. Bantu languages within Southern Bantoid, however, typically feature a symmetric seven-vowel system (/i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/), with no ATR harmony but occasional height harmony in certain dialects. Proto-Bantu is reconstructed with 22 to 25 consonants, including a series of stops (*p, *t, *k, *b, *d, g) and fricatives, alongside the prenasalized series. In southern Bantu varieties, click consonants (e.g., /ǀ, ǁ, !/) have been incorporated through contact with Khoisan languages, appearing in languages like Xhosa and Zulu as non-native but integrated sounds. Subgroup variations highlight phonological diversity: Ekoid and Tivoid languages often include complex consonants, contributing to intricate syllable structures. Beboid languages are spoken in the Cameroon-Nigeria border region. These traits underscore the branch's internal heterogeneity, with non-Bantu groups showing more areal influences from neighboring Atlantic-Congo languages. Reconstructions of Proto-Southern Bantoid posit a consonant inventory with voiceless stops (*p, *t, *k) and their voiced counterparts, plus a prenasalized series, alongside a vowel system supporting ATR . This proto-system likely had fewer tones than modern descendants, with tonogenesis possibly accelerating in Bantu and Grassfields lineages through prosodic shifts. Such reconstructions draw from comparative data across , emphasizing shared innovations like the *p series retention in non-Bantu varieties.

Grammar and Morphology

Southern Bantoid languages are characterized by a pervasive system that organizes nouns into categories marked primarily by prefixes, influencing agreement across the and . This system is a hallmark of the family, with Proto-Southern Bantoid reconstructions positing shared forms such as *mu-/*mi- for human or animate classes, alongside other nasal and oral prefixes that pair for singular- distinctions. In , the most extensively documented , systems typically comprise 10 to 20 classes, with prefixes like *mu- for class 1 (humans, e.g., *mu-ntʊ̀ 'person') and its plural *ba- in class 2, or *ki-/*bi- for diminutives in classes 7/8; these prefixes govern concordial agreement on adjectives, possessives, and verbs, as in m-tu a-zuri ('good person', class 1/2 agreement). Non-Bantu Southern Bantoid languages exhibit reduced but analogous systems, often with 5 to 8 classes and mergers or suffixal elements; for instance, in Tivoid languages like Tiv, prefixes such as u- (singular humans) and a- () mark 6 to 8 classes, with agreement limited to possessives and numerals, while Ipulo shows up to 14 classes with complex allomorphy including zero prefixes. , another non-Bantu branch, feature 7 to 10 classes with (C)V prefixes, as in Lamnso where affixes like la- denote augmentatives, reflecting a relic of the proto-system but with innovations like double affixation in some dialects. Verb morphology in Southern Bantoid languages is predominantly agglutinative, stacking prefixes for subject agreement, tense-aspect-mood markers, and object incorporation with a , followed by suffixes for extensions and final vowels. Tense and aspect are encoded via pre- affixes or auxiliaries, with distinctions for present, past, and future; in Bantu, for example, the pre-stem slot includes subject prefixes concordant with noun classes (e.g., *a- for class 1) and tense markers like *-a- for recent past, as reconstructed in Proto-Bantu. Extensions—derivational suffixes altering valency or aspect—are widespread, particularly in Bantu where forms like *-is- (, e.g., fund-is-a 'cause to return' from fund-a 'return') and *-id- (applicative, adding a ) follow the , though their productivity varies; Proto-Southern Bantoid likely had *CV extensions such as *-a (passive), *-i (), and *-l (applicative), retained more aspectually in non-Bantu groups. In Tivoid, morphology is simpler, with stem-vowel alternations or suffixes for tense-aspect (e.g., Tiv *tí 'eat' vs. *tá 'ate', marked by tone and vowel change) and limited extensions, while like Naki employ prefixal tense markers (e.g., *bə- for future) and occasional valency extensions, often fused with aspectual notions like pluractionality. Word order in Southern Bantoid languages is predominantly subject-verb-object (SVO), facilitating head-initial structures, though some Grassfields varieties exhibit verb-subject-object (VSO) or flexible orders due to topicalization. Agreement extends from noun classes to verbs, where subject prefixes match the controlling noun's class (e.g., Bantu ba-bona ba-ntʊ̀ 'the people see the person', with class 2 ba- on both verb and object relative), and to adnominals; in non-Bantu groups like Tivoid, agreement is sparser, often confined to pronouns and limited to major classes. This morphological integration underscores the family's typological coherence, with proto-reconstructions indicating an ancestral system of prefixed classes and agglutinative verbs that diversified across subgroups.

Lexical Features

Southern Bantoid languages exhibit distinctive lexical patterns, particularly in numeral systems and shared vocabulary, reflecting both inherited Proto-Niger-Congo roots and subgroup-specific innovations. Numeral systems across these languages are predominantly , with forms often marked by noun class prefixes that agree with the counted nouns, a feature briefly linking to broader grammatical structures. Reconstructions for Proto-Southern Bantoid suggest early forms such as *moʔ for 'one', *fe/pa for 'two', *tat for 'three', *nai for 'four' (with Grassfields variations like *kwa/kya), and *tan for 'five'. In , numerals 1–10 derive from Proto-Bantu reconstructions, showing systematic for higher numbers (e.g., for 'eight' from 'four'). Non-Bantu subgroups like Tivoid, Grassfields, and Ekoid display variations, often retaining core roots but with altered class markers or local innovations. For instance, Tivoid languages use forms like *mɔ for 'one' and *tat for 'three' in Tiv, while Ekoid shows *jid/-jiŋ for 'one' and *sa/ra for 'three'. The following table compares reconstructed or attested forms for numerals 1–10 in select representatives:
NumeralProto-BantuTiv (Tivoid)Mundani (Grassfields)Nde-Ndele (Ekoid)
1*mòì/*mòdìmɔ/myea-mɔʔn-dʒi
2*bà-dɩ́hal/-tarbe-bem-ba
3*tátʊ̀tat/tarbe-tatn-sa
4*nàìɲi(n)/-ar(kwa/kya base)ni
5*táànòtantain (Kom var.)don/lon
6*sáá/*sita(compound)(3×2 base)(limited data)
7*sáá ná/*saba(5+2)(5+2 base)(limited data)
8*nainai/*nane(4×2)(4×2 base)(limited data)
9*kenda(5+4)(5+4 base)(limited data)
10*kʊ́mì/*kumi(5×2)(5×2 base)(decimal base)
These forms illustrate decimal structuring, with higher numerals built additively or multiplicatively from lower ones. Shared in Southern Bantoid languages underscores common ancestry, especially in basic vocabulary like body parts and . Proto-Bantu reconstructions include *nyàmà for 'meat/flesh', widely across Bantu (e.g., nyama, Zulu inyama), and *boko for 'arm/hand' (e.g., okuko, Zulu isandla). Other body part cognates are *cooko 'head' (e.g., kichwa), *bede 'thigh' (e.g., Kongo bede), and *bongo 'knee' (e.g., Herero okobongo). Agricultural terms show similar retention, such as *bIad 'to plant/sow' (e.g., -panda, Zulu -hlanganisa via semantic shift) and *cada 'field' (e.g., Shona musango). Vocabulary associated with the includes ironworking terms like *cimbila 'iron' (e.g., chuma, Zulu insimbi) and *cUd 'to forge' (e.g., reflexes in eastern Bantu for ). These cognates, numbering over 2,000 in Bantu lexical databases, highlight innovations tied to farming and spread from around 3,000–2,000 years ago. Borrowings in Southern Bantoid languages arise from contact with neighboring Niger-Congo branches (e.g., Adamawa in Dakoid subgroups) and via trade and colonization. For example, incorporate terms from (e.g., clicks in southern Bantu like Zulu for 'herd boy' from !Kung), and from /English (e.g., leseni 'license' from Portuguese licença, or Zulu itreyini 'train' from English). Non-Bantu groups like Jarawan Bantu show loans from Chadic and Adamawa due to bilingualism. Lexical diversity is evident in non-Bantu Southern Bantoid subgroups, where numerals and core vocabulary often diverge from Bantu while maintaining bases, as in Ekoid forms like *don/lon for 'five'. This contrasts with Bantu's more uniform inheritance, reflecting localized adaptations without widespread influences.

References

  1. https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/51/
  2. http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Bantoid/General/Bantoid%20languages%20monograph.pdf
  3. https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/53/
  4. https://www.academia.edu/80936163/Noun_Classes_in_Tikar
  5. https://www.academia.edu/43105585/Harmony_and_disharmony_in_Mbat_Jarawan_Bantu_verbs
  6. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/22614f9e-552d-4e6e-933c-0b18a105a821/1001684.pdf
  7. https://zenodo.org/records/7575823/files/373-BostoenEtAl-2022-5.pdf?download=1
  8. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2112853119
  9. https://www.academia.edu/6026186/The_Bantoid_languages
  10. https://aflat.org/alorg/bantoid.html
  11. https://data.scilifelab.se/highlights/bantu_expansion/
  12. https://www.joshuaproject.net/people_groups/15505/NI
  13. https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/72/81/31/72813130397720480534790620191547827040/silesr2008_022.pdf
  14. https://www.academia.edu/1520600/The_Bantu_area_towards_clearing_up_a_mess_2003_
  15. https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/38088.pdf
  16. https://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Bantoid/Bendi/Comparative%20Bendi.pdf
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330765842_An_inventory_of_Bantu_languages
  18. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tivoid-languages
  19. https://www.africanhistoryextra.com/p/the-nsibidi-script-ca-600-1909-ce
  20. https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/528/
  21. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wide-Grassfields-languages
  22. https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/530/
  23. https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/578/
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366395003_Jarawan_numerals_implications_for_history_and_internal_classification
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387281918_An_overview_of_the_Bantoid_languages
  26. https://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/BC/General/Benue-Congo%20classification%20latest.pdf
  27. https://www.academia.edu/2389134/Grollemund_R_and_Hombert_J_M_2012_Sorting_out_the_position_of_Bantu_languages_in_Bantoid_World_Congress_of_African_Linguistics_7_Wocal_7_Buea_Cameroun_August_20_24_2012
  28. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1503793112
  29. https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/hup1/afrikaunduebersee/article/download/288/208/1700
  30. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-031422-114801
  31. https://llacan.cnrs.fr/fichiers/nigercongo/abstracts/Hyman.pdf
  32. http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Bantoid/Tivoid/General/Tivoid%20comparative.pdf
  33. https://faculty.washington.edu/lauramcg/papers/Lamnso.pdf
  34. https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~jcgood/jcgood-BantuHistoricalMorphosyntax.pdf
  35. http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/37/paper1603.pdf
  36. https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~jcgood/jcgood-Naki_Grammar_Sketch.pdf
  37. https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/191
  38. https://linguistics.africamuseum.be/BLR3.html
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292611738_What_comparative_Bantu_pottery_vocabulary_may_tell_us_about_early_human_settlement_in_the_Inner_Congo_Basin
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.