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Ghanaian iron gankoqui bells.

A bell pattern is a rhythmic pattern of striking a hand-held bell or other instrument of the idiophone family, to make it emit a sound at desired intervals. It is often a key pattern[1][2] (also known as a guide pattern,[3] phrasing referent,[4] timeline,[5] or asymmetrical timeline[6]), in most cases it is a metal bell, such as an agogô, gankoqui, or cowbell, or a hollowed piece of wood, or wooden claves. In band music, bell patterns are also played on the metal shell of the timbales, and drum kit cymbals.

Sub-Saharan African music

[edit]
Bantu migrations: 1 = 2000–1500 BC origin; 2 = ca.1500 BC first migrations; 2.a = Eastern Bantu; 2.b = Western Bantu; 3 = 1000–500 BC Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu; 4–7 = southward advance; 9 = 500 BC–0 Congo nucleus; 10 = 0–1000 AD last phase
Use of African bell patterns is found primarily within the Niger–Congo language family (yellow and yellow-green).

Gerhard Kubik notes that key patterns are not universally found in sub-Saharan Africa: "Their geographical distribution mainly covers those parts of Africa where I.A.4 (Kwa languages) and the 'western stream' of the I.A.5 (Benue–Congo languages), or 'Bantu' languages are spoken, with offshoots into the Lower Zambezi valley and the Nyasa/Ruvuma area in southeast Africa" [within the larger Niger–Congo-B group].[7] Use of the patterns has since spread throughout the greater Niger–Congo language family. The use of iron bells (gongs) in sub-Saharan African music is linked to the early iron-making technology spread by the great Bantu migrations. The spread of the African bell patterns is probably similarly linked.

Throughout Africa, wherever these gongs have occurred they have been manufactured by the same process of welding the two halves together along a wide flange. This indicates a common origin.

— James Walton, (1955: 22) [8]

Kubik observes that "at the broadest level," the various key patterns "are all interrelated."[6] Key patterns exist in their own right,[9] as well as in relation to the three inner reference levels of elementary pulsation, main reference beat, and primary cycle.[10] Kubik further states that key patterns represent the structural core of a musical piece, something like a condensed and extremely concentrated expression of the motional possibilities open to the participants (musicians and dancers).[11]

[Key patterns] express the rhythm’s organizing principle, defining rhythmic structure, as scales or tonal modes define harmonic structure . . . Put simply, key patterns epitomize the complete rhythmic matrix.

— David Peñalosa, (2009: 51)[12]

Key patterns are generated through cross-rhythm.[13] They typically consist of 12 or 16 pulses, and have a bipartite structure, which evenly divides the pattern into two rhythmically opposed cells of 6 or 8 pulses each.[14] The key pattern defines the musical period; the first cell is antecedent, and the second is consequent.[15][16] The asymmetrical array of attack-points contradicts the metrical symmetry of the two cells.[17]

Standard pattern

[edit]
\drums { \numericTimeSignature \time 4/4 \bar ".|:" hh8.[ hh16] r8[ hh16 hh16] r8[ hh8] hh8.[ hh16] \bar ":|." }
\drums { \time 12/8 \bar ".|:" hh8[ r hh] r[ hh hh] r[ hh r] hh[ r hh] \bar ":|." }
Standard pattern in duple-pulse (4
4) (Playⓘ) and triple-pulse (12
8) form (Playⓘ, and Play both togetherⓘ.

The most commonly used key pattern in sub-Saharan Africa is the seven-stroke figure known in ethnomusicology as the standard pattern,[18][19][20] or bembé.[21] The standard pattern is expressed in both a triple-pulse (12
8 or 6
8) and a duple-pulse (4
4 or 2
2) structure.[22] Many North American percussionists refer to the triple-pulse form as the 6
8 bell.[23] The standard pattern has strokes on: 1, 1a, 2& 2a, 3&, 4, 4a.

In 12
8: 

1 & a 2 & a 3 & a 4 & a ||
X . X . X X . X . X . X ||

In 4
4: 

1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a ||
X . . X . . X X . . X . X . . X ||
Standard bell pattern (top) with accompanying axatse part (bottom). The axatse begins on the second stroke (in parentheses)
Axatse

The axatse (Ghanaian beaded gourd instrument) part which typically accompanies the 12-pulse standard pattern in Ewe music is verbalized as: "pa ti pa pa ti pa ti pa ti pa pa". The "pa"s sound the standard pattern by striking the gourd against the knee. The "ti"s sound pulses in between the bell strokes, by raising the gourd in an upward motion and striking it with the free hand. As is common with many African rhythms, the axatse part begins (first "pa") on the second stroke of the bell (1a), and the last "pa" coincides with 1. By ending at the beginning of the cycle, the axatse part contributes to the cyclic nature of the overall rhythm. See: standard bell with accompanying axatse part. Atsiagbekor.

12
8 bell patterns

[edit]
Triple-pulse (12
8) African bell patterns (Play 1ⓘ, 2ⓘ, 3ⓘ, 4ⓘ)

There are many different triple-pulse bell patterns found in sub-Saharan Africa. These are but a small sample. Bell patterns 1 and 2 are considered by A. M. Jones to be the two simplified forms of the standard pattern.[24] Pattern 2 was the first African bell pattern to be transcribed.[25] Pattern 2 contains exactly the same pattern of attack-points as Pattern 1, but begins on a different stroke, has a different relationship to the main beats, and therefore, is a related, but different key pattern.[26] Pattern 3 is another variant of the standard pattern, one which contains exactly the same pattern of attack-points as the standard pattern, but in a different relationship to the main beats. The geographical border of Pattern 3 seems to be the Niger River. Kubik states that east of the Niger, Pattern 3 is used "among the Igbo, and the large group of Benue-Congo speakers from eastern Nigeria through western Cameroon, down to southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, eastern Angola and northern Zambia."[27] The pattern is also used in Cuba and Haiti. Pattern 4 is a bell pattern used by the Hausa people of Nigeria.[28] It is also used in the Cuban-Congolese rhythm palo. The figure is sometimes referred to as a horizontal hemiola.[29]

Three-beat cycle bell patterns

There is a category of 12
8 bell patterns based on "slow" cycles of three cross-beats across four or eight main beats. Three-over-eight (3:8) is one of the most metrically contradictive, and extraordinarily dynamic cross-rhythms found in African music. Within the context of a single four-beat cycle (single measure or musical period), the cross-rhythmic ratio is 1.5:4. The three cross-beats, spanning 24 pulses, are represented as whole-notes below for visual emphasis.

Three cross-beats across two main beat cycles (two measures). This is the cross-rhythmic ratio of 3:8, or within the context of a single measure, 1.5:4. (Playⓘ)

The following 24-pulse bell pattern is used in the Ewe rhythm kadodo.[30] The three single strokes are muted. The kadodo bell pattern is an embellishment of three "slow" cross-beats spanning two measures, or three-over-eight (3:8).

kadodo bell pattern built upon the 3:8 or 1.5:4 cross-rhythm. Playⓘ

4
4 bell patterns

[edit]
Duple-pulse (4
4) African bell patterns (Play 1ⓘ, 2ⓘ, 3ⓘ, 4ⓘ, 5ⓘ)

Pattern 1 (4
4 standard pattern) is played on the head of a small Yoruba bata drum in Benin.[31] Pattern 2 is used by the Yoruba and Igbo people of Nigeria.[32] Pattern 3 is the bell part in fufume (Ghana).[33] Pattern 4 is used by the Ga people (Ghana) for the rhythm gahu.[34] Patterns 3 and 5 are used in the Ghanaian rhythm kpanlogo.[35] Patterns 2 and 3 are known in Cuba as rumba clave and son clave respectively.

Single-celled bell patterns

[edit]

Some bell patterns are single-celled and therefore, not key patterns.[36] A single-celled pattern cycles over two main beats, while a two-celled key pattern cycles over four main beats. The most basic single-celled pattern in duple-pulse structure consists of three strokes, known in Cuban music as tresillo.

The "tresillo"[37][38] (Cuban term) is the most basic single-celled figure in duple-pulse structure. Playⓘ
The five-stroke "cinquillo" (Cuban term) is a common single-celled variant (two additional strokes). Playⓘ
In some rhythms the bell just plays repeating cycles of offbeats. Playⓘ

Metric structure

[edit]

Divisive rhythm versus additive rhythm

[edit]

Sub-Saharan African rhythm is divisive rhythm. However, perhaps because of their seemingly asymmetric structure, bell patterns are sometimes perceived in an additive rhythmic form. For example, Justin London describes the five-stroke version of the standard pattern as "2-2-3-2-3",[39] while Godfried Toussaint describes the seven-stroke form as "2-2-1-2-2-2-1."[40] The following example of the five-stroke standard pattern is represented within an additive structure: 2+2+3+2+3.[26]

The example above is notated in additive form, with the notes sustained between each interonset interval, thus only quarter and dotted-quarter notes rather than only eighth notes and eighth rests. Playⓘ

The bell pattern, and every aspect of the overall rhythm, is considered divisive within both cultural understanding, and by most contemporary music theoreticians. Novotney states: "The African rhythmic structure which generates the standard pattern is a divisive structure and not an additive one . . . the standard pattern represents a series of attack points, . . . not a series of durational values."[41] Kubik concurs: "Although on the level of structural analysis it cannot be denied that different 'distances' of strokes, combining two or three elementary pulses, are 'added up' within the cycle, performers do not think of time-line patterns as 'additive rhythms,' . . . 'Additive rhythms' are the analytic construction of the musicologist."[42] Agawu states: "Additive rhythm . . . is a highly problematic concept for African music . . . it is not in sync with indigenous conceptions of musical structure. It arises as a kind of default grouping mechanism for those transcribers who either disregard the choreography or fail to accord it foundational status."[43]

Tresillo is often interpreted as an additive rhythm because of the irregular grouping of its strokes: 3+3+2. However, tresillo is generated through cross-rhythm: 8 pulses ÷ 3 = 2 cross-beats (consisting of three pulses each), with a remainder of a partial cross-beat (spanning two pulses). In other words, 8 ÷ 3 = 2, r2. Tresillo is a cross-rhythmic fragment. It contains the first three cross-beats of the four-over-three cross-rhythm.[44]

Tresillo written in divisive form: 8 ÷ 3.
Tresillo written in additive form: 3 + 3 + 2.

Although the difference between the two ways of notating this rhythm may seem small, they stem from fundamentally different conceptions. Those who wish to convey a sense of the rhythm’s background [main beats], and who understand the surface morphology in relation to a regular subsurface articulation, will prefer the divisive format. Those who imagine the addition of three, then three, then two sixteenth notes will treat the well-formedness of 3+3+2 as fortuitous, a product of grouping rather than of metrical structure. They will be tempted to deny that African music has a bona fide metrical structure because of its frequent departures from normative grouping structure—Agawu (2003: 87).[45]

In divisive form, the strokes of tresillo contradict the beats. In additive form, the strokes of tresillo are the beats.

Counter-meter versus polymeter

[edit]

A.M. Jones correctly identified the importance of this key pattern, but he mistook its accents as indicators of meter rather than the counter-metric (cross-rhythmic) phenomena they actually are. Similarly, while Anthony King identified this five-stroke figure as the ‘standard pattern’ in its simplest and most basic form, he did not correctly identify its metric structure. King represented the pattern in a polymetric 7
8 + 5
8 time signature.[46]

Anthony King's polymetric representation (Playⓘ).

Because this triple-pulse pattern is generated from cross-rhythm, it is possible to count or feel it in several different ways, and divide by several different beat schemes. In the diagram below the five-stroke bell pattern is shown on top and a beat cycle is shown below it. Any or all of these structures may be the emphasis at a given point in a piece of music using the bell pattern.

Different ways to count the five-stroke bell pattern, the first of which is correct Playⓘ.

The example on the left (6
8) represents the correct count and ground of the bell pattern.[20] The four dotted quarter-notes across the two bottom measures are the main beats. All key patterns are built upon four main beats.[47][48][49] The bottom measures on the other two examples (3
2 and 6
4) show cross-beats. Observing the dancer's steps almost always reveals the main beats of the music. Because the main beats are usually emphasized in the steps and not the music, it is often difficult for an "outsider" to feel the proper metric structure without seeing the dance component. Kubik states: "In order to understand the motional structure of any music in Africa, one has to look at the dancers as well and see how they relate to the instrumental background" (2010: 78).[50]

For cultural insiders, identifying the . . . ‘dance feet’ occurs instinctively and spontaneously. Those not familiar with the choreographic supplement, however, sometimes have trouble locating the main beats and expressing them in movement. Hearing African music on recordings alone without prior grounding in its dance-based rhythms may not convey the choreographic supplement. Not surprisingly, many misinterpretations of African rhythm and meter stem from a failure to observe the dance—Agawu (2003).[51]

Afro-Cuban music

[edit]
Cuban-style mountable cowbells.

Standard pattern

[edit]

The method of constructing iron bells in Cuba is identical to how it is done in Africa.[52] Not surprising, many African bell patterns are played in Cuba as well. The standard pattern is the most widely used bell pattern in Cuba. Some of the Afro-Cuban rhythms that use the standard pattern are: Congolese (Bantu): palo, triallo; Lucumí (Yoruba): iyesá (12
8 form), bembé, agbe; Arará (Fon): sabalú, egbado; "Haitiano" (Fon, Yoruba): vodú-radá, yanvalú, nagó; the rumba form columbia.[53]

Triple-pulse rumba clave written as triplets in 4
4 Playⓘ. Note that the standard bell pattern is the clave but with and pickups before the first and third notes, and the hi-hat marks the main beats (quarter-notes).[54]

In the Yoruba-based, Afro-Cuban rhythms agbe (toque güiro) and bembé, standard pattern variations are used spontaneously.[55]

Standard bell pattern variations Play topⓘ and Play bottomⓘ

The following 24-pulse bell pattern is used in the arará rhythm afrekete. The first measure simply sounds the four main beats. Notice that the first five strokes of the second measure are identical to the first five strokes of the standard pattern.

arará bell pattern

Three-beat cycle bell patterns

[edit]

There are several 12
8 bell patterns based on "slow" cycles of three beats across four or eight main beats. The three-beat cycle is represented as half-notes in the following example for visual emphasis.

three-against-four cross-rhythm

This bell pattern, an embellishment of the three-beat cycle, is used in the Afro-Cuban rhythm abakuá. It consists of three sets of three strokes each.

The bell pattern is also played in a displaced position, beginning on 4a, the pulse immediately preceding beat 1.

Abakuá bell pattern variant.

The following 24-pulse bell pattern is used in the arará rhythm afrekete. The Arará are Cuban descendants of the Fon/Ewe ethnic group, so it's perhaps not surprising that it is the same pattern as the bell part used in the Ewe rhythm kadodo, shown earlier in this article. However, as used in afrekete, the part begins in the second measure of 12
8. Notice that the first five strokes are identical to the first five strokes of the standard pattern. Like the kadodo bell, this pattern is an embellishment of the 3:8, or 1+1⁄2:4 cross-rhythm.

afrekete bell pattern

4
4 Cuban bell patterns

[edit]

A variety of Cuban 4
4 bell patterns have spread worldwide due to the global success of Cuban-based popular music.

4
4 Afro-Cuban patterns. Play 1ⓘ, 2ⓘ, 3ⓘ, 4ⓘ, 5ⓘ

Pattern 1 is son clave, usually played on wooden claves. Pattern 2 is the baqueteo, the key pattern used in danzón and the first expression of clave in written music. The baqueteo consists of the son clave strokes, plus four additional strokes. Not technically a bell pattern, the baqueteo is played on the güiro and on the heads of the timbales. The slashed noteheads are muted tones and the regular noteheads are open tones.

In the 1940s the cowbell was added to the timbales in the first danzón-mambos of the charanga orchestras. Arcaño y sus Maravillas introduced this development. Later, multiple cowbells, a cymbal and the occasional woodblock were added to the timbale setup. Patterns 3 and 4 are guaguancó cáscara patterns adopted as mambo bell parts. During the mambo era of the 1940s, bongo players began regularly using a large hand-held cowbell during the montuno section in son groups. This bongo bell role was introduced in the son conjunto of Arsenio Rodríguez. Pattern 5 is the basic bongo bell pattern.

Cuban bongo bell pattern, with 2-3 son clave above.[56] Playⓘ.

The rhythmic basis for one of the most enduring Latin jazz tunes comes from a cáscara variant adopted as a mambo bell pattern. "Manteca," co-written by Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo in 1947, is the first jazz standards to be rhythmically based on clave.[57] The rhythm of the melody in the A section is identical to a common mambo bell pattern.

Top: opening measures of "Manteca" melody. Bottom: common mambo bell pattern (2-3 clave).

Timbale bell and bongo bell interplay

[edit]

Patterns 3 and 4 are timbale bell parts that were introduced in mambo big bands. During the early 1940s Machito and his Afro-Cubans was the first band to employ the triumvirate of congas, bongos and timbales, the standard battery of percussion used in contemporary salsa. In the montuno section the bongo bell and the timbale bell parts are sounded simultaneously in a contrapuntal interplay.

In the 1970s José Luis Quintana "Changuito" developed the technique of simultaneously playing timbale and bongo bell parts when he held the timbales chair in the songo band Los Van Van. The example below shows the combined bell patterns (written in a 2-3 clave sequence).

Two interlocking cowbells, the "Changuito Special." Playⓘ

Afro-Brazilian music

[edit]
Brazilian agogo bell.

Afro-Brazilian music uses a variety of bell patterns, many of which are different than the patterns used in Cuba.

Afro-Brazilian bell patterns. Play 1ⓘ, 2ⓘ, 3ⓘ, 4ⓘ

Bell pattern 1 is used in maculelê and some Candomblé and Macumba rhythms. Pattern 1 is known in Cuba as son clave. Bell 2 is used in afoxê and can be thought of as pattern 1 embellished with four additional strokes. Bell 3 is used in batucada. Pattern 4 is the maracatu bell and can be thought of as pattern 1 embellished with four additional strokes.

See also

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  1. ^ Novotney, Eugene N. (1998: 165) Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics, UnlockingClave.com. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
  2. ^ Peñalosa, David (2012: 255) The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
  3. ^ Gerstin, Julian (2013) "Rhythmic Structures in the African Continuum" Analytical Approaches to World Music.
  4. ^ Agawu, Kofi (2003: 73) Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York: Routledge.
  5. ^ Nketia, Kwabena (1961: 78) African Music in Ghana. Accra: Longmans.
  6. ^ a b Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 54) Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-145-8.
  7. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 57). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago Press.
  8. ^ Walton, James (1955: 22) 1955 “Iron Gongs from the Congo and Southern Rhodesia” Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, v. 55, pp. 20-23 Feb. For more on early iron-working and the Bantu migrations see: Newman, James, L. (1995: 107-109, 140-149.) The Peopling of Africa, A Geographic Interpretation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07280-5.
  9. ^ A.M. Jones (1959: v. 1: 211). Cited by Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 60). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago Press.
  10. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 60).
  11. ^ Gerhard Kubik cited by Agawu, Kofi (2006: 1-46). “Structural Analysis or Cultural Analysis? Comparing Perspectives on the ‘Standard Pattern’ of West African Rhythm” Journal of the American Musicological Society v. 59, n. 1.
  12. ^ Peñalosa, David (2009: 51). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
  13. ^ Novotney, Eugene D. (1998). Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics, Web. UnlockingClave.com. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
  14. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 62-63). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  15. ^ "The time span of the bell rhythm and its division into beats establish meter, a concept that implies a musical period" Locke, David "Improvisation in West African Musics" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, (Jan., 1980), p. 125-133. Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music Education.
  16. ^ "We find that all its melodic design is constructed on a rhythmic pattern of two measures, as though both were only one, the first is antecedent, strong, and the second is consequent, weak" Grenet, Emilio, translated by R. Phillips (1939). Popular Cuban Music New York: Bourne Inc.
  17. ^ Peñalosa (2009: 65-67).
  18. ^ Jones, A.M. (1959: 210-213) Studies in African Music. 1978 edition: ISBN 0-19-713512-9.
  19. ^ King, Anthony (1960). “The Employment of the Standard Pattern in Yoruba Music” American Music Society Journal.
  20. ^ a b Novotney, Eugene D. (1998: 155). Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics, UnlockingClave.com. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
  21. ^ Toussaint, Godfried. Classification and Phylogenetic Analysis of African Ternary Rhythm Timelines. The International Society of the Arts, Mathematics, and Architecture.
  22. ^ Peñalosa (2009: 55)
  23. ^ Alan Dworsky and Betsy Sansby (2001). Hip Grooves for Hand Drums, p.77. ISBN 0-9638801-5-2.
  24. ^ Jones, A.M. (1959: 212) Studies in African Music. 1978 edition: ISBN 0-19-713512-9.
  25. ^ Curtis, Natalie (1920: 98). Songs and Tales from the Dark Continent. New York: Dover Press.
  26. ^ a b Montfort, Matthew (1987). Ancient Traditions Future Possibilities: Rhythmic Training Through the Traditions of Africa, Bali and India, p.16-17. ISBN 0-937879-00-2.
  27. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 82). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago Press.
  28. ^ Stone, Ruth M. (2005: 82). Music in West Africa; Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
  29. ^ Tenzer, Michael ed. (2006). Analytical Studies in World Music p. 102. Oxford University Press.
  30. ^ "Kadodo," Ritual Music of the Yeve, (Ladzekpo brothers). Makossa phonorecord 86011 (1982).
  31. ^ "Ogogo" Yoruba Drums from Benin, West Africa. Smithsonain CD 04294 (1980).
  32. ^ Hartigan, Royal (1995: 63). West African Rhythms for Drumset. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing.
  33. ^ Kofi, Francis (1997: 42). Traditional Dance Rhythms of Ghana v. 1. Everett, PA: Honey Rock.
  34. ^ Locke, David (1998) Drum Gahu: An Introduction to African Rhythm Tempa, Arizona: Whitecliff Media Co.
  35. ^ Hartigan (1995: 29).
  36. ^ Peñalosa (2009: 55).
  37. ^ Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). Struggling to Define a Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, p.54. ISBN 9780520254862. Shown in common time and then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
  38. ^ Sublette, Ned (2007), Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, p.134. ISBN 9781556526329. Shown with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
  39. ^ London, Justin (2012). Hearing in Time, p.155. ISBN 9780199744374.
  40. ^ Toussaint, Godfried (2005). Pattern Recognition and Data Mining, p.22. Sameer Singh, Maneesha Singh, Chid Apte, Petra Perner, eds. ISBN 9783540287575.
  41. ^ Novotney (1998: 158).
  42. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 58). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago Press.
  43. ^ Agawu (2003: 94).
  44. ^ Peñalosa, David (2010). Rumba Quinto p. xxx. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. ISBN 1-4537-1313-1
  45. ^ Agawu, Kofi (2003: 87). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions New York: Routledge.
  46. ^ King, Anthony (1961:14). Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti. Ibadan University Press.
  47. ^ Novotney (1998: 250).
  48. ^ Mauleón (1993: 47). Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 0-9614701-9-4.
  49. ^ Peñalosa (2009: 1-3).
  50. ^ Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 78). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  51. ^ Agawu, Kofi (2003: 73). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions New York: Routledge.
  52. ^ Walton (1955: 60)
  53. ^ Coburg, Adrian (2004) Percussion Afro-Cubana v. I, Percisión Folklorico Percusión mayor y menor Bern, Switzerland.
  54. ^ Thress, Dan (1994). Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drumset, p.9. ISBN 0-89724-574-1.
  55. ^ "Toque de güiros," Anthogoía de la música afro-cubana. Egrem CD boxed set 0011.
  56. ^ Waxer, Lise (2002). The city of musical memory, p.239. ISBN 0-8195-6442-7.
  57. ^ "Manteca" Manteca (Dizzy Gillespie). Phantom Sound & Vision CD (c. 1948).
[edit]
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Bell pattern

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from Grokipedia
The Bell pattern, commonly referred to as the standard African 12/8 bell pattern, is a foundational rhythmic motif originating from West African musical traditions and widely adopted in Afro-Caribbean genres. It consists of seven strokes distributed across twelve eighth-note pulses, creating a syncopated structure notated as long-short-long-short-long-long-short (LLSLLLS), which establishes a polyrhythmic framework in triple meter. This pattern, often played on a metal bell or , functions as the rhythmic "heartbeat" or organizing principle, around which other percussion, melodies, and improvisations align to maintain ensemble cohesion. Emerging from cultures such as the of and the Yoruba of , the Bell pattern is integral to warrior dances like Agbekor and sacred Bembé rituals, where the bell acts as the "grandfather" rhythm guiding the ensemble. Through the transatlantic slave trade, it was transported to the Americas, profoundly influencing Afro-Cuban music by evolving into clave patterns—the 3:2 clave (strokes on 1, 2&, 4 in the first bar and 2, 4 in the second bar of 4/4) and the 2:3 clave (strokes on 1, 1& in the first bar and 2&, 3&, 4 in the second bar of 4/4)—which underpin styles like , , salsa, and mambo. In these contexts, it is typically performed on instruments such as the timbale's , mambo bell, or even struck wooden sticks (), often complemented by related patterns like the cáscara for added texture. The pattern's cultural and musical significance lies in its ability to evoke a sense of forward motion and cyclical time, bridging African diasporic communities from and to and , while surviving colonial suppression. Its versatility allows notation in duple (4/4) or triple (6/8, 12/8) meters, and it has permeated global music, appearing in , Latin pop, and even contemporary Western compositions as a ternary rhythm akin to an "African waltz." Examples include its presence in Tito Puente's "Mambo Beat" via the cáscara variation and traditional tracks like Nigeria's "Salute to a Chief" or 's "Yambú ()." This enduring motif highlights the interconnectedness of rhythmic innovation across continents and eras.

Definition and Origins

Historical Background

Bell patterns originated in the musical traditions of West and Central African societies, including the Akan, Yoruba, and Ewe peoples, where they served as foundational rhythmic timelines in ensemble performances. These patterns, played on iron bells, trace their roots to practices, with archaeological evidence of clapperless iron bells appearing in sites across from contexts dating to the later first millennium CE. Ethnographic studies from the mid-20th century, such as those by A.M. Jones among the Ewe in , document their pervasive use in polyrhythmic structures, confirming a continuity from precolonial oral traditions. The standard bell pattern, a seven-stroke cycle in 12/8 meter, emerged as a seminal example anchoring these rhythms across ethnic groups. In these societies, bells such as the gankogui—a double iron clapper bell struck with a wooden stick—played crucial roles in signaling events, accompanying rituals, and structuring communal dances. Among the Ewe, the gankogui provided an unvarying temporal reference in dances like and Adzida, synchronizing drums, claps, and dancers while evoking spiritual and social cohesion. Similar iron clappers featured in Yoruba konkonkolo patterns and Akan ensembles, often in ceremonial contexts to invoke ancestral presence or mark communal gatherings. Early European documentation, including 16th-century explorer accounts of West African coastal rituals, noted the prominence of such resonant metal instruments in performative traditions, highlighting their cultural centrality before widespread colonial disruption. The transatlantic slave trade from the 16th to 19th centuries transmitted these bell patterns to diaspora communities in the , where enslaved Africans preserved them orally amid efforts to suppress indigenous practices. Despite prohibitions on drumming and cultural expression, rhythms from regions like the Gold (including Ewe and Akan influences) endured through clandestine performances, adapting into forms like the Afro-Cuban clave while retaining core polyrhythmic elements. Melville Herskovits's studies underscore this resilience, showing how bell-derived timelines maintained African temporal frameworks in musics. In griot traditions of and , bells anchored rhythmic cycles within oral musical ensembles, reinforcing the hereditary role of these performers as historians and communal anchors. Mandinka griots () incorporated instruments like the ngarinya—a long tubular iron bell—to punctuate praise songs and epics, ensuring rhythmic stability during extended narratives of lineage and history. This practice, rooted in the medieval , exemplified bells' function in sustaining through cyclical patterns in non-dance contexts.

Core Characteristics and Instruments

A bell pattern, also referred to as a timeline or , constitutes a short, repeating in sub-Saharan African music, typically comprising 3 to 7 strokes per rhythmic cycle, which functions as a foundational anchor for layering complex polyrhythms within an . This repetitive structure maintains a constant pulse, guiding performers and ensuring rhythmic cohesion without variation in its core form. Central to its identity are traits such as a high-pitched, metallic designed for maximum audibility amid dense percussion layers, achieved through binary or ternary subdivisions that emphasize precise timing over melodic content. As a , it orients other instruments by establishing an unchanging referential framework, allowing improvisational elements to interlock around it. Unlike melodic timelines in other traditions, bell patterns remain strictly rhythmic, devoid of pitch sequences or harmonic implications, focusing solely on temporal organization. The primary instruments for executing bell patterns are idiophones, notably double bells forged from iron, such as the gankogui used in Ewe drumming traditions of and , which consist of two conjoined conical bells producing distinct high and low tones when struck with a wooden beater. Iron bells like the dawuro exhibit acoustic properties including a piercing, resonant that cuts through ensembles, with tonal variation derived from striking techniques—such as against the body for muted effects or allowing free vibration for sustained ring. variants occasionally appear, offering a brighter, more sustained due to the metal's and elasticity. Cowbells and clappers serve similar roles, providing sharp, metallic attacks adaptable to the . These patterns trace their roots to African ritual and communal practices, where the bells' enduring form underscores their role in signaling events or invoking spiritual elements.

Rhythmic and Metric Framework

The standard bell pattern consists of seven strokes over twelve eighth-note pulses in 12/8 meter, notated as x . x . x x . x . x . x (positions 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12), often grouped additively as 2+2+1+2+2+2+1.

Divisive versus Additive Rhythm

In music theory, divisive rhythm refers to the even subdivision of a beat or into equal parts, typically following a binary (2:1) structure that aligns with Western metric frameworks. For instance, related patterns like the tresillo (a three-note motif integral to many African-derived rhythms) in 4/4 time feature strokes on beats 1, 2.5 (2&), and 4, creating a clear, symmetrical division that reinforces the underlying . This approach emphasizes regularity, where the entire cycle is parsed through consistent halving or quartering of the measure, providing a stable foundation for ensemble coordination. In contrast, additive rhythm involves grouping pulses into uneven, asymmetric sets that sum to the total cycle length, often resulting in ternary or irregular configurations. The bell pattern exemplifies this in 12/8, with its 2+2+1+2+2+2+1 grouping over 12 pulses and strokes on 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, producing a forward-leaning through its off-kilter phrasing. This structure prioritizes motivic accumulation over uniform division, allowing s to unfold as layered composites rather than strict partitions. The distinction between divisive and additive rhythms profoundly influences metric perception in bell patterns: divisive forms offer clarity by aligning accents with expected divisions, facilitating easy entrainment for performers and listeners, whereas additive forms generate hemiola-like tension through their irregular intervals, which disrupt steady metric flow and heighten rhythmic . For example, the bell's additive cycle with strokes on 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 evokes a sense of displacement against a divisive backdrop, enriching the polyrhythmic texture without resolving into even beats. Cultural preferences for these rhythmic types vary across West African traditions, with divisive structures prevalent in some Akan styles for their metric precision, while additive approaches dominate in Ewe music, such as the agbadza dance, where the bell pattern's 2+2+1+2+2+2+1 grouping fosters a cyclical, multidetermined time feel. In Ewe agbadza, performers often internalize the additive bell cycle as a referential timeline, adapting other parts to its uneven sums for communal during rituals.

Counter-Meter, Polymeter, and Polyrhythm

In African rhythmic traditions, the bell pattern often functions as a counter-meter by accenting off-beats that conflict with the prevailing metric structure, creating tension and forward momentum. For instance, in a 4/4 adaptation, the bell's seven-note pattern (strokes approximating positions 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3.5, 4, 4.5 in eighth-note subdivisions) implies layered hemiolas, overlaying triple feels against duple beats and emphasizing "weak" portions of the bar. This counter-metric effect arises from the bell's role as a timeline , which performers and dancers use to navigate the groove despite the opposition. Polymeter occurs when the bell pattern operates in an independent meter concurrent with other layers, such as a 12/8 bell cycle superimposed over a 4/4 bass line, allowing multiple metric interpretations within the same temporal span. In Ewe drumming ensembles, the standard bell pattern in 12/8 (strokes at positions 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, notated as x . x . x x . x . x . x in eighth notes) can support alternative groupings like or 3/2, as listeners or performers parse the pulses differently. This layered metric independence fosters a sense of , with the bell providing a stable reference amid the divergence. Polyrhythm in bell patterns manifests through layered ratios, such as 3:2 or 2:3, where the bell serves as the referential against which other rhythms interlock. The 3:2 , common in West African traditions, divides a cycle into three even pulses on one layer versus two on another, with alignments occurring every twelve pulses to resolve the cycle. Stroke alignments can be visualized as follows, showing the bell (B) and a contrasting 2:3 layer (C, e.g., a bass or clap pattern) over 12 pulses (eighth-note subdivisions):
Pulse:123456789101112
Bell (referential)BBBBBBB
Contrast (2:3)CCCCC
This diagram illustrates how the bell's accents (at 1,3,5,6,8,10,12) interweave with the contrasting layer (e.g., groups of two over three bell emphases), creating interlocking densities. Perceptual ambiguity in these polyrhythms—where listeners might favor one ratio over another—is mitigated by the bell's metallic timbre and consistent repetition, which anchor the ensemble's temporal orientation.

Applications in African Music

Standard Patterns in Sub-Saharan Traditions

The standard bell pattern is a foundational 7-stroke played in 12/8 time across West and Central African percussion ensembles. This pattern features strikes on pulses 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 12 within the 12-pulse cycle, providing a syncopated timeline that organizes the polyrhythmic interplay among and other instruments. The gankogui, a double iron bell, typically performs this role, with the high-pitched bell struck on the even pulses and the low-pitched on the odd for tonal contrast, ensuring rhythmic alignment and forward momentum in the ensemble. In Ewe traditions of and , the pattern underpins dances such as agbekor, a historical warrior rhythm that simulates battle movements through layered percussion. Here, it supports call-and-response structures, where the lead drummer (heno) signals variations while the ensemble responds, maintaining communal synchronization during performances. Similarly, in Akan , the pattern drives adowa, a graceful emphasizing and mourning, with the bell guiding the apentemma drum's phrases. Yoruba ensembles in and employ it in religious and social contexts, such as bata drumming for ceremonies, where it frames responsive singing and invocations. The pattern's notation in a 12-pulse cycle can be represented as follows, with "x" indicating a and "." a :
Pulse123456789101112
Strokex.x.xx.x.x.x
This transcription aligns with examples from Ewe agbekor recordings, where the pattern repeats steadily at tempos around 80-150 BPM to evoke the dance's intensity. In Akan adowa transcriptions, the same cycle appears with subtle dynamic shifts to match the dance's expressive gestures. Yoruba bata examples integrate it into longer cycles, enhancing the ritual's hypnotic quality. Regional variations adjust the strokes slightly while preserving the 12/8 framework. In of southeastern , the pattern often incorporates additional off-beat accents around pulses 3 and 9 for interlacing textures in ogene bell ensembles, emphasizing communal storytelling in masquerade performances. Mandinka traditions in and adapt it for djembe-led groups, shifting emphasis to pulses 1, 5, and 10 with a muted stroke on 6, creating a flowing quality suited to narratives in dances like sola. These alterations reflect local aesthetic preferences without disrupting the pattern's organizing function.

Variations in 12/8 and 4/4 Contexts

In Sub-Saharan African music, the standard 12/8 bell pattern, characterized by its ternary subdivision and seven primary strokes, provides a foundational timeline that accommodates variations to enhance rhythmic density while preserving cyclic structure. One prominent adaptation within the 12/8 framework is the "long bell" pattern, which introduces additional strokes to create a five-note configuration, typically placed on pulses 1, 4, 7, 9, and 10 of the 12/8 cycle. This variation imparts a fuller ternary feel, often used in Ewe drumming ensembles from to reinforce the metric hierarchy and support polyrhythmic layering by other instruments like the gankogui double bell. Adaptations to 4/4 time signatures involve converting the ternary pattern into a , aligning strokes with the duple pulse to suit faster tempos or hybrid ensembles that blend traditional African elements with Western influences. A common 4/4 rendition features five strokes, such as on beats 1, the 'e' of 1, 2, the '&' of 2, and 4, effectively overlaying the bell's onto a subdivision while maintaining the original cycle's referential points. This binary conversion is evident in Ghanaian highlife music, where the bell related to the gahu is recontextualized in 4/4, with the final shifted to an offbeat to drive danceable grooves. Similarly, in Nigerian , 4/4 bell adaptations provide a timeline that interlocks with guitar riffs and percussion, overlaying duple meters in popular ensembles. These metric shifts present challenges in upholding polyrhythmic , as the addition or repositioning of can introduce metrical or tension between ternary and binary interpretations. For instance, incorporating extra beats in the long bell may misalign with supporting rhythms, requiring performers to navigate perceptual multistability to sustain the ensemble's cohesive feel. Such adaptations highlight the bell pattern's flexibility, allowing it to anchor diverse Sub-Saharan traditions without losing its role as a regulative beat.

Single-Celled Bell Patterns

Single-celled bell patterns consist of straightforward ostinatos that repeat over a short cycle of 4 to 8 pulses, lacking complex internal subdivisions, which distinguishes them from more elaborate multi-celled structures in African rhythmic traditions. A representative example is the 3-stroke pattern in 6/8 time, where strikes occur on pulses 1, 3, and 5, creating a sparse, foundational timeline that emphasizes even spacing across the measure. This pattern, often notated as:

X . X . X .

X . X . X .

in rhythmic transcription, aligns with divisive rhythms in binary contexts by dividing the cycle into equal pulses without overlapping layers. These patterns find application in solo or small-group performances, where they serve as signaling devices or rhythmic anchors, such as in Igbo ensembles from , which use the metal bell for ritual alarms, community gatherings, or therapeutic music-making. In these settings, the ogene's resonant tones provide a clear, penetrating that maintains temporal orientation without requiring additional instruments. Another example is the basic 2:3 pattern in , which manifests as a two-note against an implied three-note subdivision, typically notated in 4/4 as strikes on beats 1 and the midpoint of beat 3 (e.g., x . . x . . . .), generating a polyrhythmic tension over a shorter cycle than the standard 12-pulse bell pattern. This contrasts with the standard pattern's longer 12/8 cycle, offering a more compact structure that cycles twice as frequently. The inherent simplicity of single-celled bell patterns makes them accessible for , facilitating initial exposure to African rhythmic principles through repetitive practice that builds and metric awareness. In educational contexts, such as Ewe children's games or introductory drumming sessions, these patterns use mnemonic syllables (e.g., "ma-te-kpo") to teach pulse independence without overwhelming learners, serving as a gateway to layering more complex interweavings in ensemble play. This foundational role underscores their value in preserving and transmitting rhythmic traditions across generations.

Applications in Afro-Cuban Music

Standard Pattern and Clave Integration

The standard African bell pattern, a foundational 12/8 prevalent in West African traditions such as the Ewe Agbekor ensemble, features seven strokes across twelve pulses, creating a 3:2 of accents that underpins polyrhythmic structures. In Afro-Cuban , this pattern evolved into the cascara or clave bell, transposed to a 4/4 meter as a repeating pattern with strokes typically placed on beats 1, the "and" of 2, beat 3, and the "and" of 4, preserving the approximate 3:2 while aligning with duple-pulse European influences in Cuban popular forms like and . This adaptation maintained the pattern's role as a temporal anchor, allowing it to integrate seamlessly into hybrid ensembles. The historical shift of this pattern into Cuban contexts occurred primarily through 19th-century cabildos, mutual aid societies established by enslaved Africans in to preserve ethnic and cultural identities under colonial rule. These organizations, particularly those of the (known as in ), who comprised a significant portion of slaves arriving between 1820 and 1840, facilitated the retention and adaptation of Yoruba rhythmic practices, including bell patterns derived from sacred and social music of the in present-day and . Cabildos provided clandestine spaces for drumming, dancing, and bell-playing rituals, which influenced the emergence of Afro-Cuban genres by blending African elements with local conditions, such as restrictions on triple meters in favor of 4/4 for broader accessibility. In Afro-Cuban ensembles such as conga and groups, the adapted bell pattern integrates closely with the clave, reinforcing its inherent by providing a persistent that guides and interlocking rhythms among percussionists. The bell's strokes emphasize the clave's off-beat accents, ensuring rhythmic cohesion in call-and-response structures typical of and , where it functions analogously to its African precursor as the unchanging "key" against which other parts weave variations. This highlights the pattern's enduring utility in maintaining groove and cultural continuity. To illustrate the adaptation, the following side-by-side notation compares the African standard bell in 12/8 (seven strokes over twelve eighth-note pulses, often notated as hits on pulses 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10) with its Cuban 4/4 counterpart (cascara pattern over two bars, repeating hits on 1, 2&, 3, 4& for alignment with the 3:2 feel across the cycle). Both approximate the 3:2 ratio, with the Cuban version simplifying rests for duple meter flow.
MeterBar 1 (Pulses/Beats)Bar 2 (Pulses/Beats)Source
African 12/8x . x x . x . (hits: 1,3,4,6)x . x x . (hits: 7,9,10; cycle repeats)Leake (2015)
Cuban 4/4 (Son Cascara)x . x . x . x (hits: 1, 2&, 3, 4&)x . x . x . x (hits: 1, 2&, 3, 4&; repeating pattern)

Three-Beat Cycle Variations

In Afro-Cuban music, three-beat cycle variations of the bell pattern emphasize a ternary structure, often notated in 6/8 meter to evoke a 3:2 polyrhythmic feel against the prevailing 2/4 . These patterns typically feature strokes on the (1), the midpoint between the second and third beats (approximately 2.5), and the third beat (3), forming a that accentuates the ternary subdivision and creates tension with binary metric layers. This , exemplified by the Bembé timeline with seven pulses in a 12-unit cycle—such as [x . x . x x . x . x . x]—provides a foundational for ensemble coordination. Counter-metric theory underpins this 3:2 alignment, allowing the bell to delineate a three-pulse cycle over two binary beats for rhythmic layering. Culturally, these ternary forms trace to Bantu influences, particularly from Congolese traditions like the Zebola adapted into the Bembé pattern, which contrasts with the binary clave dominant in Yoruba-derived Afro-Cuban styles. In genres such as and , the three-beat cycle appears in melodic and percussive contours, as seen in the Osain 's adaptation to bolero-danzón phrasing, where the enhances the syncopated elegance of the dance form. Examples abound in rumba guaguancó, where the Bembé or Columbia patterns—such as those in Columbia de La Habana—employ the three-beat cycle for call-and-response dynamics, with notation aligning strokes in 3-over-2 fashion to drive the improvisational flow. In , this variation surfaces in compositions like Chucho Valdés's "Son no. 2" (1973), where the bell's ternary phrasing interweaves with piano stabs to evoke traditional against modern progressions. For faster tempos, the often shortens to a sparse three-stroke form, akin to rhythmic archetype RA3, reducing density while preserving the 3:2 essence for heightened intensity in performance.

Timbale and Bongo Bell Interplay

In Afro-Cuban percussion ensembles, the timbale bell typically executes the cascara pattern, a foundational 3:2 rhythm derived from the standard bell cycle, often played on the instrument's shell or an attached to provide a steady, timeline. This pattern emphasizes the shell's resonant wooden during softer sections, such as verses, while aligning with the clave's two- and three-note sides to maintain metric cohesion. The bongo bell, mounted on the larger macho drum, delivers complementary strokes that accent off-beats and align with beats 1 and 3, creating a polymetric dialogue with the timbale's cascara by filling rhythmic gaps and enhancing forward momentum. These strokes, executed with a stick on the bell's low-pitched metal surface, introduce a contrasting timbre that contrasts the timbale's brighter shell tones, allowing for dynamic layering in ensemble settings. This interplay is particularly prominent in charanga bands, where the timbale and bongo players alternate bell patterns during montuno sections to build tension and release, with the bongo bell adding syncopated responses to the timbale's steady . In these flute-led ensembles, the bells' coordination supports improvisational lines, fostering a conversational rhythmic texture that drives the music's . The technique exploits timbre differences—shell strokes on the timbale for a woody, resonant quality versus the bongo bell's metallic clarity—to delineate roles, with timbale players often muffling or opening tones for variation. Historically, this integration developed in the Cuban orchestras, when innovators like Israel "Cachao" López and Orestes López added a small to the during montunos, evolving charanga instrumentation and paving the way for mambo rhythms. By the late 1930s, Arsenio Rodríguez further refined the bongo bell's role in son ensembles, standardizing its complementary function alongside in larger percussion sections.

Applications in Afro-Brazilian Music

Adaptations in Samba Rhythms

In Brazilian , the bell pattern underwent significant adaptation through Afro-Brazilian cultural , primarily via the , a double-toned iron bell instrument of Yoruba origin brought by enslaved Africans. Emerging in 19th-century , these patterns were preserved and ritualized in ceremonies, where the served as a rhythmic anchor for invocations and dances honoring orixás. This religious context directly influenced the evolution of secular , particularly in processions and the formation of samba schools (escolas de samba), where percussion ensembles transformed sacred rhythms into communal street celebrations by the early 20th century. The standard adaptation in reinterprets the African bell cycle in 2/4 meter, featuring three principal strokes—on the (1), the "and" of the second beat (2&), and the downbeat of the following measure (effectively 3 in a 4/4 conceptual overlay)—to establish a 3:2 against the duple framework. This configuration syncs closely with the , which marks the second beat emphatically, creating a propulsive groove that underscores samba's characteristic sway and collective energy. The pattern's origins lie in West African 12/8 timelines, condensed here for propulsion, deriving from the syncopated structure of the standard bell pattern (long-short-long-short-long-long-short). Representative examples appear in , a relaxed substyle of emphasizing acoustic intimacy, and , the explosive percussion of samba schools, where the 's insistent 3:2 phrasing guides improvisations and maintains metric tension amid layered drums. Variations often employ the double agogô, alternating high and low tones to introduce melodic contours and binary subdivisions, thereby enriching the polyrhythmic texture without disrupting the core pulse. These adaptations highlight samba's role in sustaining African rhythmic principles within Brazil's urban festive traditions.

Use in Other Brazilian Percussive Genres

In Brazilian percussive genres beyond , the bell pattern serves as a foundational timekeeper, adapting African-derived ostinatos to regional rhythms and instruments while maintaining its role in syncing ensemble play. These applications highlight the diversity of Afro-Brazilian traditions, where bells like the and gonguê provide rhythmic anchors in martial, dance, and ritual contexts. In , particularly the style, the bell integrates into duple meter cycles with a lilting ternary feel, providing a syncopated that underscores the game's flowing, circular movements and call-and-response vocals. Played alongside the , atabaque drums, and , this bell pattern evokes a meditative pulse that guides the roda (), drawing from West African timelines to foster among percussionists and relating to the standard bell pattern through its syncopated phrasing. Forró and baião, rooted in Northeast , incorporate the bell in syncopated duple-meter (2/4) configurations, often as a brief accompanying the zabumba bass drum to propel the lively, accordion-driven dances. This bell pattern adds metallic sparkle and directional cues, contrasting the zabumba's deep thumps while evoking rural processions and festas juninas. In baião variations, the enhances the genre's characteristic limp (limping) swing, blending indigenous and African elements for energetic footwork. Maracatu employs the heavy iron gonguê bell in processional 4/4 rhythms, where its baseline functions as the clave, organizing the explosive alphaia drums and chants in groupings that build tension during street parades. Forged from welded steel sheets, the gonguê's resonant strikes—often a repeating cycle with accents on offbeats—guide the ensemble's thunderous dynamics, incorporating variations that mimic call-and-response between high and low tones. This pattern's embellished structure reflects the genre's ritualistic intensity tied to Afro-Indigenous syncretism in . Syncretic elements in these bell patterns reveal a fusion of Bantu and Yoruba influences, transported via the transatlantic slave trade and adapted in Afro-Brazilian rituals like , which underpin , , and . Yoruba-derived patterns, such as the ijexá in 6/8, emphasize orixá invocations with melodic contours, while Bantu (Kikongo) contributions introduce denser, iron-bell timbres like the gonguê's flat resonance for communal grounding. This interplay shapes regional diversity, with Kwa-Fon elements bridging the two in Northeast percussion.

Broader Influences and Modern Adaptations

Role in Jazz and Latin Fusion

The bell pattern entered jazz primarily through Cuban influences in the 1940s, particularly via the mambo style, where it provided a foundational rhythmic layer for polyrhythmic complexity. Trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie played a pivotal role in this integration, collaborating with Afro-Cuban percussionist Chano Pozo to incorporate cascara bells—cowbells struck in the standard Cuban clave pattern—into big band arrangements. Their 1947 recording "Manteca" exemplifies this, featuring a mambo cymbal bell pattern over a 3:2 clave pulse that blended bebop improvisation with Afro-Cuban drive, marking one of the earliest hits to fuse these elements and influencing subsequent Latin jazz developments. Key figures like conga drummer Mongo Santamaria and timbalero further adapted bell patterns in contexts during the 1950s and 1960s. Santamaria, a prominent New York-based Afro-Cuban musician, incorporated conga patterns derived from the traditional bell rhythm into jazz ensembles, enhancing the genre's percussive texture and melodic interplay. Puente, known as the "Mambo King," prominently featured timbale bells in 3:2 clave on tracks like those from his 1957 album Night Beat, where the patterns drove energetic horn sections and solos, solidifying their role in bridging dance rhythms with . In fusion, the often served as a , layering 12/8 phrasing over swing 4/4 to create polyrhythmic tension and forward momentum. This approach is evident in drummer Art Blakey's 1962 recording "" from the album The African Beat, where a 12/8 bell-derived pattern on the ride interacts with 4/4 swing bass and drums, drawing from Yoruba influences to evoke a hybrid groove. Such integrations extended to hybrids, as in the 1964 album Getz/Gilberto by and João , where syncopated rhythms underpinned improvisation, popularizing Brazilian-jazz crossovers.

Contemporary Global Music Applications

In rock and funk music, bell patterns have been adapted through cowbell rhythms inspired by James Brown's groundbreaking grooves, creating polyrhythmic tension by layering accents over a steady pulse, a technique that persists in contemporary funk revivals and rock fusions since the 1980s. Hip-hop and electronic genres have incorporated sampled clave bells, often via the Roland TR-808's cowbell sound, to drive trap beats and Afrobeat revivals, providing a guiding rhythmic framework similar to traditional bells. In trap production, these patterns appear in snare and hi-hat configurations rotated from son clave, as heard in modern tracks that blend Southern hip-hop with global percussion elements. For instance, Nigerian artist Burna Boy's Afrobeats tracks, such as those on his 2020 album Twice as Tall, anchor syncopated grooves with West African rhythmic elements, reviving traditional patterns in a digital context. Global fusions since the 1980s have seen 12/8 bell patterns adapted in European world music ensembles and K-pop percussion, transforming ternary feels into danceable beats that merge African roots with pop structures. In K-pop, Afrobeats influences manifest in songs like NCT 127's "Fact Check" (2023), alongside West African dance elements. Current trends in the 2020s emphasize digital emulation, with VST plugins like Afroplug's drum kits mimicking traditional bells for Afrobeats production, facilitating the genre's globalization through accessible tools for producers worldwide as of 2025. This expansion is exemplified by Burna Boy's Grammy performances, highlighting Afrobeats' integration into mainstream pop.

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  38. https://www.revistadelcesla.com/index.php/revistadelcesla/article/download/214/212/214
  39. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1nfHOxA06E
  40. https://massapodcast.org/episodes/12-baiao
  41. http://toquei.com/en/instrumentos-tipicos-do-nordeste/
  42. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZsEcDjC1z0
  43. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Representative-baseline-and-variations-rhythmic-patterns-for-the-gongu-e_fig1_355185995
  44. https://kalango.com/en/gongues
  45. https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstreams/51d63538-7d0d-4d5d-9107-2c7149d54f2c/download
  46. https://pas.org/publication-articles/a-legacy-of-brazilian-percussion-with-mestre-jorge-alabe/
  47. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/modern-jazz-late-1940s
  48. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/latin-jazz-overview
  49. https://core.ac.uk/download/217307333.pdf
  50. https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.16.22.2/mto.16.22.2.cohn.php
  51. https://wp.nyu.edu/musedlab/2016/07/27/visualizing-trap-beats-with-the-groove-pizza/
  52. https://buildingbeats.org/blog/how-to-make-a-burna-boy-type-beat
  53. https://www.envimedia.co/8-artists-in-the-korean-music-scene-who-tapped-into-afrobeats-in-2023/
  54. https://afroplug.com/free-vst-plugins-afrobeats-dancehall-and-more/
  55. https://www.billboard.com/music/awards/2024-grammy-recap-analysis-women-hip-hop-1235598827/
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