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Foundation of Etruscan temple at Tarquinia, scene of the Tages legend.
Furrows of the arable land in Umbria

Tages was claimed as a founding prophet of Etruscan religion who is known from reports by Latin authors of the late Roman Republic and Roman Empire. He revealed a cosmic view of divinity and correct methods of ascertaining divine will concerning events of public interest. Such divination was undertaken in Roman society by priestly officials called haruspices.

The religious texts recording the revelations of Tages (and a few other prophets, mainly a female figure known as Vegoia) were called by the Romans the Etrusca Disciplina at least as early as the late republic. They were written in the Etruscan language, despite their Latin titles. None presently survive. The last author claiming to have read elements of the disciplina is the sixth-century John the Lydian, writing at Constantinople.[1] Thus, knowledge of Tages comes mainly from what is said about him by the classical authors, which is a legendary and quasimythical view; John the Lydian suggested Tages is only a parable.

Etymology

[edit]

As the Etruscan alphabet had no 'G', Tages is most likely a Latinization of an Etruscan word. The reverse of a third-century BC bronze mirror from Tuscania depicts a youthful haruspex in a conical hat examining a liver. He is labeled pavatarchies. A second, older haruspex with a beard listens and is labeled avl tarchunus. Massimo Pallottino made the generally accepted suggestion that the first name is to be segmented pava Tarchies and means "the child, Tarchies." The second name is "the son of Tarchon", where Tarchon is the legendary king of Tarquinia, location of Tages' revelation, and also one of the founders of the Etruscan League. [2]

Gm. M. Facchetti proposed an alternative hypothesis linking the name to the repetitive Etruscan stem thac-/thax, which he interprets as 'voice'.[3]

Legend

[edit]

There are multiple versions of the origins of Tages.[4] Broadly Tages appeared from the earth while an Etruscan was ploughing, and then taught Etruscans divination. He is sometimes the grandson of Jove.[5] Cicero[6] reports the myth in this way:

They tell us that one day as the land was being ploughed in the territory of Tarquinii, and a deeper furrow than usual was made, suddenly Tages sprang out of it and addressed the ploughman. Tages, as it is recorded in the works of the Etrurians (Libri Etruscorum), possessed the visage of a child, but the prudence of a sage. When the ploughman was surprised at seeing him, and in his astonishment made a great outcry, a number of people assembled around him, and before long all the Etrurians came together at the spot. Tages then discoursed in the presence of an immense crowd, who noted his speech and committed it to writing. The information they derived from this Tages was the foundation of the science of the soothsayers (haruspicinae disciplina), and was subsequently improved by the accession of many new facts, all of which confirmed the same principles. We received this record from them. This record is preserved in their sacred books, and from it the augurial discipline is deduced.

In Ovid's version,[7] Tyrrhenus arator ("a Tyrrhenian ploughman") observed a clod turn into a man and begin to speak of things destined to happen and how the Etruscan people could discover the future.

Etrusca disciplina

[edit]

Joannes Laurentius Lydus lived in the sixth century AD. Although the last classical-period writer to have read the books, he is the most specific about his sources. He implies[1] that he read "the texts of the Etruscans"; that is, the Etrusca Disciplina, including the report of the haruspex, Tarchon, who was instructed by Tyrrhenus. Tarchon's work on Tages, he says, is a dialogue in which Tarchon asks Tages questions in "the ordinary language of the Italians". This is presumably Vulgar Latin, as Lydus cannot mean any early Italic dialect. Tages' recorded response is "in ancient letters", presumably in the Etruscan language. Lydus says it is not very understandable, and that he relies on translations.

Representations of Tages

[edit]

Labeled Etruscan representations of Tages are very rare, and scenes clearly tied to the Tages myth are almost as rare. Figures leaning on the lituus, the crooked staff of the augur, or examining entrails wearing the conical cap of the haruspex, are common, but are not necessarily Tages. Winged figures, representing divinity, are also common, especially on funerary urns from Tarquinia, but whether any depict Tages is questionable. Assuming that a certain percentage of these representations are, in fact, Tages, there appears to be no standard way to depict him. Art historians have inserted Tages freely among them but entirely in a speculative fashion.

In addition to the labelled scene on the bronze mirror described above, which must have been repeated many times without labels, a type of scene engraved on fourth-century BC gemstones, once set in seal rings, appears to describe the Tages myth. A bearded figure (Tarchon?) bends over as though listening at the head or head and torso of another, beardless figure embedded in or arising from the ground.[8] On a similar theme is a third-century BC bronze votive statuette, .327 m (1.07 ft) high, from Tarquinia, of a sitting infant peering upward with an adult's head and visage.[9]

References

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Tages

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Tages was a legendary prophetic figure in ancient Etruscan mythology, depicted as a boy-like entity possessing the wisdom of a seer who suddenly emerged from a ploughed field near , delivering revelations on the art of to astonished onlookers. According to the Roman author , while a farmer was tilling the soil, the ploughshare struck deeper than usual, uncovering Tages, who addressed the ploughman directly before a crowd gathered to hear his exposition on soothsaying, which was meticulously recorded and later elaborated by the Etruscans into their foundational religious texts. This event established Tages as the primary revealer of the Etrusca Disciplina, the comprehensive body of Etruscan sacred knowledge encompassing rituals, , haruspicy (inspection of animal entrails), and sky divination, practices that influenced Roman despite Cicero's skeptical critique of the myth's plausibility. His teachings were preserved in the Libri Tagetici (Books of Tages), one of several prophetic texts including those attributed to the Vegoia, which guided Etruscan priests in interpreting omens and maintaining cosmic harmony. In , Tages is often represented as a disembodied head or partial figure rising from the on engraved gems and mirrors, symbolizing his chthonic origins and oracular authority, sometimes blending with motifs reminiscent of or other prophetic heads. Though no direct Etruscan writings survive detailing the , Roman and later sources portray Tages as the archetypal founder of Etruscan religious expertise, underscoring the culture's emphasis on as a means to discern divine will in daily and state affairs. The enduring legacy of Tages highlights the Etruscans' syncretic blend of indigenous and possibly Eastern influences in their spiritual traditions, which persisted into the Roman era through adopted practices like the examination of the Liver model.

Etymology and Name

Linguistic Origins

The name "Tages," known primarily through Latin sources, represents a Latinization of an Etruscan proper name, as the Etruscan language and its alphabet lacked a phoneme or letter for the voiced velar stop /g/, typically rendering such sounds with /k/ or adapting them in transmission to Latin. Scholars propose original Etruscan forms such as *Tarchies or *Thas, reflecting the phonetic constraints of the language, where intervocalic voiced consonants were uncommon or absent. A key piece of evidence for this etymological adaptation appears in an early 3rd-century BCE bronze mirror inscription from , now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale in , which reads pava Tarchies. Here, pava is interpreted as an Etruscan term for "boy" or "child," derived from a possible pre-Greek root *pawo- related to notions of youth, paralleling Greek pais ("child"), while Tarchies designates the youthful prophetic figure central to the scene of . This inscription underscores the name's association with a childlike revealer of divine , aligning with the legendary depiction of Tages as an sage. Modern linguistic analysis further connects the name to Etruscan roots emphasizing . A 2020 study by Giulio M. Facchetti provides observations on the linguistic aspects of the name Tages, highlighting its . This etymology highlights how the name encapsulates core Etruscan concepts of oracular , where the prophet's emergence and speech symbolize the transmission of sacred disciplina through auditory and chthonic means.

Interpretations and Variations

The name Tages is symbolically interpreted as evoking prophetic or divine , mirroring the figure's abrupt of esoteric to humanity and signifying the earth's voice in disclosing celestial order. This ties directly to his mythological role as a conduit for sacred knowledge, where his childlike form belies an ancient, oracular authority that bridges the terrestrial and divine realms. In ancient Roman accounts, variations of the name and its associations appear, notably in Festus' De verborum significatu (359.14), where Tages is portrayed as the son of and grandson of Jove (Iovis), a divine boy who imparted the art of haruspicy to the twelve Etruscan peoples. This depiction integrates Tages into a Roman pantheon, emphasizing his lineage from major deities like Jove and (a protective spirit), thus adapting Etruscan lore to align with Jupiter's supremacy. The name also links to Tarchon, a foundational Etruscan hero-king, with ancient texts suggesting Tages as his instructor in religious rites; for instance, a third-century BCE bronze mirror from depicts "pava Tarchies," interpreted as the prophetic child addressing Tarchon, indicating "Tages" as a Latinized form of an Etruscan variant like Tarchies. Such connections highlight Tages' role in origin myths, where he guides Tarchon—the purported founder of —in establishing Etruscan ritual practices. These name variations reflect the mythological tradition's evolution from to Roman assimilation, where indigenous figures like Tarchon and Tages were reframed with and genealogies to fit imperial narratives. In Roman contexts, Tages' teachings were codified in the Libri Tagetici, preserving Etruscan while subordinating it to Roman religious authority. Modern scholarship debates the name's derivations, with some advocating Etruscan-specific etymologies, such as compounds implying "sprung from the earth" via Anatolian influences like Hittite te-ekan ("earth"). These views underscore ongoing discussions about isolation versus potential borrowings, influencing interpretations of Tages as a uniquely Italic .

The Myth of Tages

Emergence from the Earth

In Etruscan mythology, Tages emerged fully formed from the earth during the mythical era of the civilization's founding, symbolizing a direct revelation from the chthonic realm to the agrarian society of ancient . The event is described as occurring in a plowed field near Tarquinii (modern ), a key city in southern , while a was tilling the with his cutting deeper than usual into the ground. This sudden apparition underscored the intimate connection between Etruscan religious beliefs and the land, portraying the earth not merely as a source of sustenance but as a divine matrix capable of birthing prophetic wisdom amid everyday agricultural labor. The farmer, struck with astonishment and fear upon uncovering the figure, let out a loud cry that quickly drew onlookers from the vicinity, leading to the assembly of a large crowd and eventually the whole of . According to ancient accounts, this gathering marked the inception of the Etrusca Disciplina, as the assembled witnessed the entity's pronouncements on sacred knowledge. The chthonic nature of the emergence—tied to the furrow's disruption of the soil—evoked the fertile yet mysterious depths of the , aligning with Etruscan emphases on earth's generative and oracular powers in their cosmological worldview. While the core narrative originates in Etruscan oral traditions preserved in their , Roman authors provided the earliest written testimonies. Cicero recounts the incident in detail, noting the rustic plowman's terror and the rapid spread of the news, which compelled the Etruscans to record the revelations on the spot. Later sources, such as the Byzantine writer John Lydus, variant the story by linking the emergence to the legendary king Tarchon during his plowing, emphasizing the event's role in establishing practices. These accounts highlight the myth's uniqueness in Mediterranean lore, though it shares broad chthonic motifs with figures like Erichthonios, who also sprang from the as a symbol of autochthonous origins, yet Tages' tale distinctly anchors Etruscan identity in prophetic instruction rather than heroic lineage.

Appearance and Initial Encounter

Tages is depicted in ancient sources as a paradoxical figure whose physical form belied his profound wisdom. According to Cicero's De Divinatione, the Etruscan annals describe Tages as having the appearance of a boy, yet possessing the sagacity and articulate voice of an aged philosopher or seer, a description that underscores the startling contrast between his youthful exterior and mature intellect. Ovid's Metamorphoses complements this portrayal by recounting how a clod of earth during plowing transformed into a human form, shedding its terrestrial substance to speak with prophetic authority, though without explicitly noting the childlike aspect. The initial encounter with Tages occurred immediately following his emergence from the ploughed field, where a Tyrrhenian farmer first witnessed the anomaly. reports that the sight of this childlike yet wise being filled the observers with astonishment and fear; the ploughman's cry drew a crowd, which grew to include representatives from across , where Tages addressed them directly. Later accounts, such as those by John Lydus, identify the ploughman as the legendary king Tarchon, who is said to have summoned Etruscan leaders to hear the revelations. This moment of direct confrontation emphasized Tages' otherworldly confidence, as he engaged the crowd in a manner that transcended his apparent vulnerability, drawing them into his oracular discourse. The mythic motif of ' dual —youthful body and juxtaposed with the voice and of an elder—serves as a central in the narrative, evoking the abrupt irruption of divine insight into the human realm. paraphrases the annals to highlight this incongruity, noting how the boy's form inspired immediate reverence and terror among the Etruscans, symbolizing the unforeseen arrival of sacred knowledge in their tradition. This element of surprise and inversion reinforced the belief in epiphanic divine intervention, where profound truths manifest unexpectedly through unassuming vessels.

Teachings and Etrusca Disciplina

Core Revelations on Divination

According to ancient accounts, Tages emerged from the earth in the region of Tarquinii and delivered a comprehensive exposition of the principles of divination, forming the foundational knowledge of the Etrusca Disciplina. This oral teaching, imparted in a single day to an assembled crowd from across Etruria, encompassed the core methods of haruspicy (inspection of animal entrails), augury (observation of bird flights and behaviors), and fulgural divination (interpretation of lightning and thunderbolts). These revelations were recorded by witnesses and later expanded through empirical observations, but their original completeness was attributed solely to Tages as the divine initiator of the tradition. Central to these teachings was the Etruscan cosmological framework, which divided the heavens into 16 equal regions, each presided over by a specific responsible for omens originating from that sector. Lightning strikes, for instance, were interpreted based on the region from which they emanated, signaling divine intent or warnings tied to the associated , while movements and entrail configurations were mapped against this celestial template to discern patterns of fate. This structured system integrated natural phenomena into a unified divinatory practice, emphasizing the gods' active communication through the observable world and distinguishing Etruscan methods by their systematic regional assignment. The immediacy and totality of Tages' disclosures set him apart from other prophetic figures in ancient traditions, as he vanished back into the upon completing his lecture, leaving no ongoing ministry or incremental revelations but a fully formed discipline ready for transmission. This singular event underscored the Etruscan belief in a direct, unmediated divine origin for their religious knowledge, with Tages portrayed as a childlike sage embodying prophetic wisdom without human lineage or prolonged earthly presence.

Structure and Transmission of the Disciplina

The Etrusca Disciplina, the codified body of religious and divinatory knowledge attributed to the mythical figure Tages, was organized as a collection of sacred books known as the libri Etrusci or libri Tagetici. These texts were divided into distinct categories reflecting the core practices of , including the Libri Haruspicini for extispicy and the examination of animal entrails, the Libri Fulgurales for interpreting thunder and as augural signs, and the Libri Rituales encompassing broader ceremonial protocols, such as the Libri Ostentaria for prodigies, Libri Acherontici for necromantic rituals, and Libri Fatales for eschatological matters. Classical Roman authors like described these divisions as foundational to Etruscan , with the corpus comprising a substantial collection of volumes across categories. The transmission of the Disciplina began as an oral revelation from Tages during the protohistoric period, evolving into written form as Etruscan priests (haruspex or netśvis) committed the teachings to durable yet perishable materials such as linen scrolls and clay tablets to ensure preservation amid societal expansion. By the late Republic, Roman scholars like Nigidius Figulus translated key sections, such as the brontoscopic calendar of thunder omens, into Latin, facilitating integration into Roman religious institutions through the college of haruspices. The last documented engagement with these texts occurred in the 6th century AD, when the Byzantine author John the Lydian (Ioannes Lydus) referenced and partially reproduced the brontoscopic calendar in his De mensibus and De ostentis, drawing from Figulus' earlier version. No original Etruscan texts of the Disciplina survive intact, with the only physical remnant being the Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis, a linen-wrapped mummy cloth from the 3rd century BC containing ritual calendrical fragments, underscoring the vulnerability of these materials to decay. Knowledge persists instead through Latin summaries and excerpts in works by Cicero (De divinatione), Varro (De lingua Latina), Pliny the Elder (Naturalis historia), and later compilers like Servius, which preserved interpretive frameworks and specific omens while adapting them to Roman contexts. This textual legacy played a crucial role in safeguarding Etruscan religious expertise against cultural assimilation, allowing practices like haruspicy to endure as institutionalized elements of elite divination in Etruscan city-states and beyond. From its origins as a divine, oral endowment, the Disciplina transformed into a structured corpus that underpinned Etruscan societal , with priestly guilds using the libri to regulate public rituals, interpret celestial signs, and advise rulers on matters of state and fate. This institutionalization, evident in archaeological models like the Liver for haruspical training, marked a shift from mythical to a systematic that reinforced social order and religious authority across Etruscan polities.

Depictions and Representations

Artistic Iconography

Visual representations of Tages in are exceedingly rare, with only a handful of artifacts providing direct or plausible evidence of his , often relying on inscriptions for identification. Scholarly consensus holds that these depictions emphasize his role as a youthful emerging from the to reveal divine , though debates persist over the interpretation of unlabeled figures. One of the most explicit artifacts is a from , dated to the 3rd century BCE and now housed in the National Archaeological Museum in . This engraved mirror features an inscription labeling the central child figure as "pava Tarchies," interpreted as "the boy Tages," shown wearing a conical priestly cap and examining a liver in a ritual pose, surrounded by attentive listeners including Avle Tarchunus (Tarchon). The scene captures the moment of prophetic revelation through haruspicy (divination by entrails), underscoring Tages's foundational role in Etruscan religious practice. Additional evidence appears on 4th-century BCE engraved scarabs, small gemstones often used as seals, such as one in the Museum in depicting a youthful -like figure emerging from the ground, accompanied by an adult listener. These gems portray the prophet in a dynamic pose, symbolizing his sudden appearance from plowed earth, though without inscriptions, their link to Tages relies on contextual parallels to the myth. Common iconographic motifs in these representations include the lituus, a curved diviner's staff held by the figure, signifying ; the act of inspecting entrails; and emergence from the soil, evoking the agricultural origins of the myth. A statuette from , approximately 0.327 meters tall and dated to the BCE, may depict Tages as a young holding a lituus, though its identification remains tentative due to the absence of labeling. The scarcity of labeled images has fueled scholarly debates, notably by Nancy Thomson de Grummond, who argues that many unlabeled youthful figures in , particularly those in prophetic contexts, likely represent Tages, drawing on mythological parallels and inscriptional evidence from mirrors and gems. These artifacts were typically discovered in burial contexts or ritual deposits at sites like and , linking them to Etruscan funerary practices and the transmission of sacred knowledge in elite .

Literary and Textual References

The earliest surviving detailed account of Tages appears in 's De Divinatione (2.71), composed around 44 BC, where the author describes him as a boy possessing the wisdom of an old man who suddenly emerged from a plowed furrow in Etruscan soil and imparted a complete system of to the assembled onlookers, with the teachings subsequently recorded in sacred books. This narrative serves 's broader purpose of defending the validity of against skeptical critics, positioning the Etruscan tradition as a venerable example of revealed knowledge integrated into Roman practice. Ovid provides a poetic rendition of the myth in Metamorphoses (15.553–559), written in the early 1st century AD, likening ' emergence from a clod of to other wondrous transformations and emphasizing his role as the inaugural instructor of the Etruscans in foretelling future events. Here, the figure is invoked amid a catalog of prophetic and metamorphic tales, underscoring the miraculous and didactic nature of his appearance to a Tyrrhenian plowman and the ensuing astonishment among witnesses. Sextus Pompeius Festus, in his 2nd-century AD glossary De Verborum Significatione, preserves an entry on Tages derived from the Augustan scholar Verrius Flaccus, identifying him as the son of the god and thus grandson of , thereby embedding the prophet within a Romanized divine genealogy. This brief but influential notation highlights Tages' supernatural origins and links his revelations directly to the foundational texts of Etruscan haruspicy. Marcus Terentius Varro, in his extensive Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (ca. 47–43 BC), offers indirect allusions to through discussions of the Etrusca Disciplina, treating the prophetic tradition as part of Rome's adopted religious antiquities without narrating the emergence myth in full. Varro's antiquarian approach rationalizes Etruscan lore within a broader framework of Roman theology, referencing the disciplina's books as authoritative sources of knowledge. In the AD, the Byzantine scholar John Lydus references Tages extensively in De Ostentis (chapters 27–38, 55–58), attributing the Etrusca Disciplina—including the brontoscopic calendar—to the prophet's dictation, mediated through the 1st-century BC Roman scholar Nigidius Figulus. Lydus presents these teachings as a systematic corpus on omens and portents, preserving fragments of the original revelations in Greek translation and using them to explore late antique interests in and natural signs. These Roman and Byzantine texts trace the evolution of the Tages legend from an inferred Etruscan —lacking any surviving indigenous writings—to a rationalized element in , where it bolsters arguments for divination's antiquity and utility. and Varro adapt the myth to affirm Roman religious legitimacy, while poeticizes it for aesthetic effect, and later authors like Festus and Lydus compile it as encyclopedic lore; collectively, they maintain the narrative without access to purported Etruscan originals, relying instead on intermediary Roman interpretations.

Cultural Impact and Legacy

Adoption in Roman Religion

The Roman adoption of Etruscan religious practices, particularly those attributed to the prophetic figure Tages, occurred primarily through the integration of haruspices—Etruscan diviners skilled in interpreting animal entrails, , and other omens—into the state's religious framework. These experts, trained in the Etrusca Disciplina (the sacred Etruscan lore revealed by Tages), were summoned to as early as the period to advise on prodigies and public rituals, ensuring the city's alignment with divine will. By the , this transmission had become institutionalized, with haruspices serving as consultants for senatorial decisions on omens, such as those preceding major military campaigns or natural disasters. Under the , the influence of Tages-derived methods deepened, as a formal collegium of sixty was established to provide salaried expertise on state , perpetuating Etruscan techniques in Roman . Emperors frequently consulted these diviners for personal and imperial legitimacy; for instance, invoked the prophecy of the haruspex Vulcatius, who interpreted Julius Caesar's as marking the transition to a new era, thereby linking Etruscan to Augustan ideology. Similarly, the , acquired by the Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus and consulted for prophetic guidance, echoed the oracular traditions stemming from Tages' revelations, blending Etruscan with Roman . Roman historians documented this cross-cultural adoption, highlighting the enduring role of Etruscan rituals in Roman practice. , in his , recounts multiple instances of haruspical consultations during the Republic, such as the interpretation of omens before the siege of , where Etruscan methods rooted in ancient revelations guided Roman expiatory rites and military strategy. This integration not only preserved Tages' teachings but also syncretized them into the Roman religious corpus, influencing public ceremonies and imperial policy for centuries.

Modern Interpretations and Scholarship

Modern scholarship on Tages centers on reconstructing his mythological role through interdisciplinary approaches, with key contributions from Etruscanists like Massimo Pallottino and Nancy Thomson de Grummond. Pallottino, in his seminal overview of Etruscan culture, interpreted the Tages myth as emblematic of indigenous religious innovation, where the prophet's emergence from the earth signifies the autochthonous revelation of the Etrusca disciplina, distinct from external influences. De Grummond, building on this, examined Tages in the context of Etruscan , identifying depictions of the child-prophet in prophetic scenes on artifacts like bronze mirrors, and highlighted in associated deities as a native trait rather than a Greek borrowing. Her work emphasizes Etruscan self-representation in and inscriptions to counterbalance reliance on Roman narratives. Interpretations often position Tages as a potent of Etruscan autochthony, affirming local origins against theories of migration from or that incorporate Greek elements. This myth underscores an indigenous identity, with the prophet's teachings on reinforcing cultural autonomy amid Hellenistic interactions. Debates persist on whether Tages reflects a historical sage or a purely mythical construct, with most scholars favoring the latter due to the absence of verifiable historical anchors in ancient sources. Archaeological evidence for dedicated Tages cults remains scarce, limited to indirect allusions in religious artifacts rather than temples or inscriptions naming him directly, prompting modern reconstructions from Roman literary fragments and comparative divination studies. For instance, scholars address these gaps by analyzing texts like the Brontoscopic Calendar to infer the structure of Tagetic revelations. Recent linguistic work, such as Giulio M. Facchetti's 2020 analysis, proposes an Etruscan etymology for "Tages," linking it to native onomastics without Latin or Greek parallels, thus supporting its indigenous roots. These analyses highlight Tages' enduring significance in exploring Etruscan cosmology and its intersections with ancient Mediterranean belief systems.

References

  1. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_divinatione/2*.html#23
  2. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.06.16/
  3. https://www.umass.edu/etruscannews/articles/Etruscan6x.pdf
  4. https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/ancient/documents/EtruscanNews02_sp03.pdf
  5. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/etruscan.htm
  6. https://www.academia.edu/45186231/Alcune_osservazioni_linguistiche_sul_nome_di_Tagete_in_AION_9_n_s_2020_Giulio_M_Facchetti_
  7. https://www.keytoumbria.com/Umbria/Etruscan_Religion.html
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361722740_Tages_the_Etruscan_Bible
  9. https://archive.org/stream/deverborumsignif00festuoft/deverborumsignif00festuoft_djvu.txt
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41531759
  11. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/divining-the-etruscan-world/etruscan-religion-in-the-classical-world/8A9D1B22C6735112A3AAD3D841ECF090
  12. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_divinatione/2*.html
  13. https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/Metamorph15.php
  14. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cicero/de_divinatione/2A*.html
  15. https://www.deanfrancispress.com/index.php/al/article/download/1068/AL001752.pdf/4589
  16. https://dokumen.pub/divining-the-etruscan-world-the-brontoscopic-calendar-and-religious-practice-9781107009073-1107009073.html
  17. https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Religion_of_the_Etruscans.html?id=hQtbJyFCd40C
  18. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_divinatione/2*.html#71
  19. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Haruspices.html
  20. https://www.academia.edu/30941413/Made_in_Etruria_The_Brontoscopic_Calendar_in_John_of_Lydus_De_ostentis
  21. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haruspices
  22. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/NPOE/e503830.xml?language=en
  23. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/divination-prediction-and-the-end-of-the-roman-republic/divination-and-monarchy/DE4F9C616BDE3CDE3810D0A1968E1D83
  24. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/divining-the-etruscan-world/background/BCAE6BB98E664C2830DB5F6283C6BD50
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