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Cumae
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Cumae (Ancient Greek: Κύμη, romanized: (Kumē) or Κύμαι (Kumai) or Κύμα (Kuma);[1] Italian: Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony of Magna Graecia on the mainland of Italy and was founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BCE. It became a rich Roman city, the remains of which lie near the modern village of Cuma, a frazione of the comune Bacoli and Pozzuoli in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, Italy. The archaeological museum of the Campi Flegrei in the Aragonese castle contains many finds from Cumae.

Key Information

History

[edit]
Main article: Greek colonisation

Early

[edit]
The lower city of Cumae seen from the acropolis

The oldest archaeological finds by Emilio Stevens in 1896 date to 900–850 BC[2][a] and more recent excavations have revealed a Bronze Age settlement of the ‘pit-culture’ people, and later dwellings of Iron Age Italic peoples whom the Greeks referred to by the names Ausones and Opici (whose land was called Opicia).

The Greek settlement was founded in the 8th century BCE by emigrants from cities of Eretria and Chalcis in Euboea, next to an Opician settlement. The Greeks were already established at nearby Pithecusae (modern Ischia)[4] and were led to Cumae by the joint oecists (founders): Megasthenes of Chalcis and Hippocles of Cyme.[b]

The site chosen was on the hill and later acropolis of Monte di Cuma surrounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by particularly fertile ground on the edge of the Campanian plain. While continuing their maritime and commercial traditions, the settlers of Cumae strengthened their political and economic power by exploitation of the land and extended their territory at the expense of neighbouring peoples.

The colony thrived and in the 8th century BCE it was already strong enough to send Perieres to found Zancle in Sicily,[5] and another group to found Tritaea in Achaea, Pausanias was told.[6] Cuma established its dominance over almost the entire Campanian coast up to Punta Campanella over the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, gaining sway over Puteoli and Misenum.

The colony spread Greek culture in Italy and introduced a dialect of Greek, and the Euboean alphabet, a variant of which was adapted and modified by the Etruscans and then re‑adapted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet, still used worldwide today.

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[7]

Cumae was at that time celebrated throughout all Italy for its riches, power, and all the other advantages, as it possessed the most fertile part of the Campanian plain and was mistress of the most convenient havens round about Misenum.

The growing power of the Cumaean Greeks led many indigenous tribes of the region to organise against them, notably the Dauni and Aurunci with the leadership of the Capuan Etruscans. This coalition was defeated by the Cumaeans in 524 BCE[8] at the first Battle of Cumae under the direction of Aristodemus. The glorious victories of the colony increased its prestige, so much so that according to Diodorus Siculus, it was usual to associate the whole region of the Phlegraean Fields with Cumaean territory.

At this time the Roman senate sent agents to Cumae to purchase grain in anticipation of a siege of Rome.[9] Then in 505 BCE Aristodemus led a Cumaean contingent to assist the Latin city of Aricia in defeating the Etruscan forces of Clusium (see also War between Clusium and Aricia) and having attained the people's favour he overthrew the aristocratic faction and became a tyrant himself. It was probably at this point that Cumae founded Neapolis (“new city”) in the late 6th century BCE.

Further contact between the Romans and the Cumaeans occurred during the reign of Aristodemus. Tarquinius, the last of the legendary Kings of Rome, lived his life in exile with Aristodemus at Cumae after the Battle of Lake Regillus and died there in 495 BCE.[10][11] Livy records that Aristodemus became the heir of Tarquinius, and in 492 BCE when Roman envoys travelled to Cumae to purchase grain, Aristodemus seized the envoys' vessels on account of the property of Tarquinius which had been seized at the time of Tarquinius' exile.[12]

Eventually, the dispossessed nobles and their sons were able to take over Cumae in 490 BCE, and executed Aristodemus.[13][14]

The combined fleets of Cumae and Syracuse (on Sicily) defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae in 474 BCE.

The temple of Apollo sent the revered Sibylline Books to Rome in the 5th c. BCE. Also Rome obtained its priestesses who administered the important cult of Ceres from the temple of Demeter in Cumae.

Oscan and Roman Cumae

[edit]
Entrance to the Cave of the Sibyl
The Temple of Zeus at Cumae was converted into a paleochristian basilica. The baptismal font can still be seen in the back of the building.
Grotta di Cocceio

The Greek period at Cumae came to an end in 421 BC, when the Oscans allied to the Samnites broke down the walls and took the city, ravaging the countryside.[15][16] Some survivors fled to Neapolis.

The walls on the acropolis were rebuilt from 343 BCE. Cumae came under Roman rule with Capua and in 338 BCE was granted partial citizenship, a civitas sine suffragio. In the Second Punic War, in spite of temptations to revolt from Roman authority,[17] Cumae withstood Hannibal's siege, under the leadership of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus.[18]

The city prospered in the Roman period from the 1st c. BCE along with all the cities of Campania and especially the bay of Naples as it became a desirable area for wealthy Romans who built large villas along the coast. The "central baths" and the amphitheatre are built.

During the civil wars Cumae was one of the strongholds that Octavian used to defend against Sextus Pompey. Under Augustus extensive public building works and roads were begun and in or near Cumae several road tunnels were dug: one through the Monte di Cumae linking the forum with the port, the Grotta di Cocceio 1 km long to Lake Avernus and a third, the "Crypta Romana", 180m long between Lake Lucrino and Lake Averno. The temples of Apollo and Demeter were restored.

The proximity to Puteoli, the commercial port of Rome and to Misenum, the naval fleet base, also helped the region to prosper.

Another very important innovation was the construction of the great Serino aqueduct, the Aqua Augusta supplying many of the cities in the area from about 20 BC. Domitian's via Domitiana provided an important highway to the via Appia and thence to Rome from 95 AD.

The early presence of Christianity in Cumae is shown by the 2nd-century AD work The Shepherd of Hermas, in which the author tells of a vision of a woman, identified with the church, who entrusts him with a text to read to the presbyters of the community in Cuma. At the end of the 4th century, the temple of Zeus at Cumae was transformed into a Christian basilica.

The first historically documented bishop of Cumae was Adeodatus, a member of a synod convoked by Pope Hilarius in Rome in 465. Another was Misenus, who was one of the two legates that Pope Felix III sent to Constantinople and who were imprisoned and forced to receive Communion with Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople in a celebration of the Divine Liturgy in which Peter Mongus and other Miaphysites were named in the diptychs, an event that led to the Acacian Schism. Misenus was excommunicated on his return but was later rehabilitated and took part as bishop of Cumae in two synods of Pope Symmachus. Pope Gregory the Great entrusted the administration of the diocese of Cumae to the bishop of Misenum. Later, both Misenum and Cumae ceased to be residential sees and the territory of Cumae became part of the diocese of Aversa after the destruction of Cumae in 1207.[19][20][21] Accordingly, Cumae is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.[22]

Under Roman rule, so-called "quiet Cumae"[23] was peaceful until the disasters of the Gothic Wars (535–554), when it was repeatedly attacked, as the only fortified city in Campania aside from Neapolis: Belisarius took it in 536, Totila held it, and when Narses gained possession of Cumae, he found he had won the whole treasury of the Goths.

Diocese of Cuma(e)

[edit]
Not to be confused with Cuma (Aeolis) in Asia Minor.

A bishopric was established around 450 AD. In 700 it gained territory from the suppressed Diocese of Miseno.

In 1207 it was suppressed when forces from Naples, acting for the boy-King of Sicily, destroyed the city and its walls, as the stronghold of a nest of bandits. Its territory was divided and merged into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aversa and Roman Catholic Diocese of Pozzuoli. Some of the citizens from Cumae, including the clergy and the cathedral capitular, took shelter in Giugliano.

Resident bishops

[edit]
  • Saint Massenzio (300? – ?)
  • Rainaldo (1073? – 1078?)
  • Giovanni (1134? – 1141?)
  • Gregorio (1187? – ?)
  • Leone (1207? – ?)

Titular see

[edit]

In 1970, the diocese was nominally restored as a Latin titular see. The title has been held by:

  • Bishop Louis-Marie-Joseph de Courrèges d’Ustou (1970.09.02 – 1970.12.10)
  • Archbishop Edoardo Pecoraio (1971.12.28 – 1986.08.09)
  • Bishop Julio María Elías Montoya, O.F.M.

Archaeology

[edit]

Despite the abandonment of the area of Cumae due to the formation of marshes, the memory of the ancient city remained alive. The ruins, although in a state of neglect, were later visited by many artists and with the repopulation of the area due to land reclamation, short excavation campaigns were made. The first excavations date to 1606 when thirteen statues and two marble bas-reliefs were found; later finds included the large statue of Jupiter from the Masseria del Gigante exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. However, after the discovery of the Vesuvian sites the attention of the Bourbon explorers was diverted there and the Cumae area was abandoned and plundered of numerous finds which were then sold to private individuals. A first campaign of systematic excavations took place between 1852 and 1857 under Prince Leopoldo, brother of Ferdinando II of the Two Sicilies[24] when the area of the Masseria del Gigante and some necropoles were explored. Later Emilio Stevens was given the concession and worked at Cumae between 1878 and 1893, completing the excavation of the necropolis, even though news of the various finds led to a continuous looting of the area.

A disaster occurred between 1910 and 1922 when draining of Lake Licola caused part of the necropolis to be destroyed.

Crypta Romana

The explorations of the acropolis started in 1911, bringing to light the Temple of Apollo. Between 1924 and 1934 Amedeo Maiuri and Vittorio Spinazzola investigated the Temple of Jupiter, the Cave of the Sibyl and the Crypta Romana, while between 1938 and 1953 the lower city was explored. A chance discovery occurred in 1992 when during the construction of a gas pipeline near the beach a temple of Isis was discovered. In 1994 the "Kyme" project was activated for the restoration of the site. Excavation of the tholos tomb was completed, first partly explored in 1902. In the area of the forum a basilica-shaped building, the Aula Sillana, was discovered, while along the coastline three maritime villas were found.

Since 2001 the CNRS has been excavating a necropolis dating from 6th to 1st c. BCE outside the Porta mediana.[25]

In June 2018 a painted tomb dating to the 2nd century BCE and depicting a banquet scene was discovered.[26]

Development of the ancient city

[edit]
Athena terracotta antefix 6th c. BC
Doric frieze from temple ~340 BC

The ancient city was divided into two zones, namely the acropolis and the lower part on the plains and the coast. The acropolis was accessible only from the south side and it was on this area that the first nucleus of the city developed crossed by a road called Via Sacra leading to the main temples. The road began with two towers, one of which collapsed with part of the hill and the other was restored in the Byzantine era and is still visible. The lower city developed from the Samnite period and to a greater extent during the Roman age.

The lower city was defended by walls and during the Greek age the acropolis had probably the same type of defences, even if the remains today dating back to the 6th century BCE are only on the southeastern part of the hill perhaps also used as retaining walls of the ridge.

In the 6th c. BCE temples were built in tufa, wood and terracotta. Columns, cornices and capitals were made of yellow tufa, roofs and architraves of wood and to protect the overhang, terracotta tiles and elaborate antefix decorations. The city and acropolis walls were built from 505 BC, as well as the Sibyl's cave.

When the city was allied with the Romans in 338 BCE a new temple was built with exceptional painted friezes and ornamentation which have been discovered though the temple was destroyed after a few decades by fire.

Between the Punic Wars and the adoption of Latin as the official trading language (180 BC) the city walls were restored and a large stadium built west of the Porta mediana. The central baths were built and major work was done on the acropolis temples. From the end of the 2nd c. BCE Cumae's architecture became increasingly romanised.

The Augustan age saw many fine new buildings in the city such as the basilica or "Sullan Aula" south of the forum, decorated with polychrome marble. Water supply to the town was increased by an extension to the town of the great Serino aqueduct, the Aqua Augusta, after 20 BCE and paid for by local benefactors, the Lucceii family, praetors of the city, who also built an elaborate nymphaeum in the forum as well as several other monuments and buildings.

In the 1st c. AD the "Temple of the Giant" was built, so-called because the famous giant bust of Jupiter (now in Naples Archaeological Museum) was discovered in its ruins; the walls of the temple are incorporated into a later farmhouse.

After Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, survivors from Herculaneum came to Cumae and it became a well prosperous town.

Surviving ancient monuments

[edit]
The Thermae of the Forum

The visible monuments include:

  • Temple of Diana
  • Capitoline temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
  • Temple of Isis
  • Temple of Demeter
  • Temple of Apollo, built in the 6th or 5th century BC, renewed in the late 4th century BC and again under Augustus, transformed into a church around 500 AD.[27]
  • The Acropolis
  • Arco Felice
  • The Forum
  • Grotta di Cocceio
  • Crypta Romana
  • Masseria del Gigante

Arco Felice

[edit]
Arco Felice and via Domitiana in use today

The Arco Felice was a 20 m high monumental entrance to the city built in a cut through Monte Grillo which Domitian made in 95 AD to avoid the long detour imposed by the via Appia, and allow easier access to Cumae along what was later called the via Domitiana while the bridge also carried a road along the ridge of the hill. It was built of brick and tiled in marble, and surmounted by two rows of arches of lighter concrete covered with brick. The piers had three niches on both sides where statues were placed.

The via Domitiana, whose paving is still perfectly preserved and is in continuous use today, connected to the via Appia, the artery of communication with Rome, as well as with Pozzuoli and Naples.

The arch probably replaced a smaller gate from Greek times and in a higher position.

Crypta Romana

[edit]

The Crypta Romana is a tunnel dug into the tufa under the Cuma hill, crossing the acropolis in an east-west direction, giving an easier route from the city to the sea. Its construction is part of the set of military enhancement works built by Agrippa for Augustus and designed by Lucius Cocceius Auctus in 37 BC, including the construction of the new Portus Iulius and its connection with the port of Cumae through the so-called Grotta di Cocceio and the Crypta Romana itself.

With the displacement of the fleet from Portus Iulius to the port of Miseno in 12 BCE and the end of the Civil War between Octavian and Mark Antony in 31 BCE the tunnel lost its strategic value. The forum entrance was made monumental with 4 statue niches in 95 AD at the same time as the Arco Felice was built.[28] An avalanche closed the sea entrance in the 3rd c. After 397 it was reopened. In the Christian age it was used as a cemetery area; in the 6th c. the Byzantine general Narsete tried to use it to reach the city during the siege of Cumae, but weakened the structure and a large section of the vault collapsed.

It was brought to light between 1925 and 1931 by the archaeologist Amedeus Maiuri.

Sculpture

[edit]

Mythology

[edit]
Main article: Cumaean Sibyl

Cumae is perhaps most famous as the seat of the Cumaean Sibyl. Her sanctuary is now open to the public.

In Roman mythology, there is an entrance to the underworld located at Avernus, a crater lake near Cumae, and was the route Aeneas used to descend to the Underworld.

[edit]
  • The walls of the acropolis
    The walls of the acropolis
  • The Temple of Apollo
    The Temple of Apollo
  • Street in Cumae
    Street in Cumae
  • The Temple of Diana
    The Temple of Diana
  • Acropolis seen from west
    Acropolis seen from west
  • Amphitheater
    Amphitheater

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cumae

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Cumae was the first established on the Italian mainland, founded around 750 BC by Euboean settlers from and other cities in , located on the western coast of near the modern city of . As a key hub in the Greek colonization of , it served as a vital and cultural bridge between Greek settlers and local Italic populations, facilitating the exchange of goods, technologies, and traditions such as the Chalcidian , which influenced Etruscan and Latin scripts. The city was particularly renowned for the , a prophetic priestess of Apollo whose , housed in an underground gallery known as the Sibyl's Cave, drew famous visitors including the legendary in Virgil's and influenced Roman religious practices through the . Cumae's strategic position on the enabled its rapid growth into a prosperous urban center by the , with archaeological evidence from sites like the , necropoleis, and sanctuaries revealing planned settlements, elite burials blending Greek and Italic elements, and artifacts including , iron weapons, and inscriptions that underscore its economic and social vitality. It played a foundational role in western Greek expansion, founding daughter colonies such as Neapolis (modern ) around 600 BC and Dicaearchia (Puteoli, now ) around 525 BC, while withstanding major threats like the Etruscan siege of 524 BC and achieving a naval victory over the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC with Syracusan aid. However, its independence ended with conquest by Oscan-speaking Campanians in 421 BC, leading to a gradual decline in Greek dominance as the city adopted Oscan and later Latin influences under Roman incorporation into the federation in 338 BC. During the Roman Imperial period, Cumae experienced a resurgence in prosperity through agriculture, commerce, and monumental construction, including restorations under such as the Temple of Apollo and the Crypta Romana tunnel, though it eventually faded as a political center by , with structures repurposed for Christian use. Today, the site of Cumae forms a major archaeological park in , , preserving ruins of the , temples to Apollo and (later a ), the Sibyl's , and extensive necropoleis, offering insights into over a millennium of Greco-Roman and Italic history through ongoing excavations since the 19th century.

Geography

Location and Topography

Cumae is situated at 40°50′55″N 14°3′13″E along the northern coast of the Bay of Naples in , approximately 25 kilometers west of modern . The site lies within the (Campi Flegrei), a large volcanic complex spanning about 13 kilometers in width, characterized by nested craters and active geothermal features. To the east, across the bay, rises prominently, while , a roughly 1 kilometer in diameter, borders the site to the west, enhancing its strategic coastal position. The of Cumae centers on a prominent perched atop a hill, elevating the upper city to approximately 45 meters above and offering panoramic oversight of the surrounding and . This hill, formed from volcanic deposits such as the Neapolitan Yellow (dated to around 15,000 years ago) and older layers (about 39,000 years ago), features steep slopes and natural fractures that contributed to its defensibility. The lower city sprawls across the adjacent , a flatter expanse of pyroclastic sediments, facilitating access to the harbor while remaining sheltered by the hill's prominence. The Phlegraean Fields' volcanic geology profoundly influenced Cumae's site selection, providing rugged terrain with sheer cliffs and lava domes that served as inherent barriers against intrusion, augmented by the marshy, isolated expanse of to the rear. This environment not only bolstered defensibility through limited land access routes but also supplied abundant local resources, particularly the soft yet durable , which was quarried directly from the hill for constructing walls, tunnels, and buildings. The interplay of uplift, , and fracture networks in the further shaped the landscape, creating a network of cavities and ridges integral to the site's layout.

Modern Context

Cumae was abandoned in 1207 AD after its destruction by the army of the under Goffredo of Montefuscolo, leading to the site's absorption into the of Aversa and remaining uninhabited thereafter. The ruins lay largely forgotten until systematic archaeological excavations commenced in the mid-19th century, marking the site's rediscovery and initial scholarly attention. Today, the site is managed by the Direzione Regionale per i Beni Culturali e Paesaggistici della as part of the broader Archaeological Park, established in 1927 to encompass the ancient and surrounding areas. Preservation efforts focus on structural stabilization and environmental monitoring, including rockfall mitigation on the western slope of Cumae's to safeguard against volcanic and seismic risks inherent to the . The park integrates into contemporary as a key cultural asset, located approximately 25 km northwest of and accessible via public transport or car. It draws significant tourism, with visitor numbers contributing to the regional total of over 50 million annual admissions to Italian archaeological sites and museums as of 2018, emphasizing Cumae's role in educational and leisure itineraries exploring heritage. Ongoing restorations, such as those enhancing seismic resilience through surveys and protective interventions post-2010s unrest in the area, ensure the site's accessibility and longevity.

History

Foundation and Early Greek Colonization

Cumae was established as the earliest Greek colony on the Italian mainland around 750 BCE by from the Euboean cities of and possibly , led by oikists from and Hippocles from Cyme in Minor. The site, previously occupied by indigenous Opicians, was strategically chosen for its natural defenses on a coastal and proximity to the fertile Campanian plain, serving as an extension of the nearby trading outpost at Pithecusae (modern ). As a Chalcidian foundation, Cumae quickly asserted maritime dominance in the Bay of , facilitating further colonial expansion; at an early stage, Cumaean pirates established Zancle (modern ) in , marking it as a mother-city. Later, during the late 6th century BCE, Cumae founded Neapolis (modern ) along the bay's central coastline and Dicaearchia (modern ) around 525 BCE to consolidate its regional influence. The colony's early prosperity stemmed from its agricultural base in the exceptionally fertile Campanian plain, which supported cultivation of cereals and olives, alongside , yielding surpluses for local consumption and export. further bolstered economic growth, with Cumae acting as a key intermediary in the metal trade between Euboean Greeks and Etruscan sources of iron, copper, and other ores from and . Greek pottery production and exchange also flourished, as evidenced by the widespread distribution of Chalcidian-style wares across the western Mediterranean, reflecting Cumae's role in cultural and economic networks. By the BCE, the population had expanded significantly through and integration of local Opicians, supporting urban development and military capabilities. Key events in Cumae's Archaic history underscored its military and political prominence. In 524 BCE, Cumaean forces decisively defeated an Etruscan invasion near the city, halting Tyrrhenian expansion southward and securing (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 7.3.1–4.5). A second victory followed in 474 BCE, when Cumae, allied with Hieron I of Syracuse, crushed a combined Etruscan fleet off the coast, further weakening Etruscan naval power in the (Diod. Sic. 11.51.1–2). Amid this era of success, internal strife led to the rise of as tyrant around 504 BCE; after emerging as a in the Etruscan wars, he seized power by eliminating rival aristocrats and ruled until his death circa 485/484 BCE (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 7.10.1–11.4). Under , Cumae experienced cultural and architectural flourishing, with enhanced Hellenic influences in , , and , solidifying its status as a vibrant center of .

Samnite and Roman Periods

In 421 BCE, the Greek colony of Cumae was conquered by the Campanians, an Oscan-speaking people associated with the , following their seizure of the Etruscan city of in 423 BCE. This marked a significant political shift, as the imposed their control over the region, leading to a linguistic transition where Oscan replaced Greek as the dominant language in inscriptions and daily use. Despite this change, Cumae retained strong elements of its Hellenized culture, preserving Greek-rooted religious cults, artistic traditions, and urban practices amid the Italic overlay. Cumae's relationship with Rome evolved through alliances and gradual integration during the late . After the (340–338 BCE), Rome subjected Cumae to its authority, granting the city civitas sine suffragio—citizenship without voting rights—which tied it to Roman administration while allowing local in internal affairs. This partial status persisted until the Social War (91–88 BCE), when Cumae, along with other communities, received full (civitas optimo iure), fully incorporating it into the Roman civic framework and aligning its political fate with the expanding . The imperial era brought prosperity to Cumae under Roman patronage, particularly during the reign of , who maintained close ties to the Bay of Naples region, including ownership of a villa at nearby within Cumae's territorial influence. This favoritism facilitated major infrastructure projects, such as the Aqua Augusta aqueduct, constructed around 20 BCE to supply fresh water to Cumae, Puteoli, and the at Misenum, enhancing urban and economic . Later, under in 95 CE, the Via Domitiana was built, connecting Cumae directly to the Via Appia from Sinuessa and improving overland trade routes to the ports of Puteoli and Cumae itself. These developments underscored Cumae's role as a key nodal point in the imperial network, sustaining its importance despite shifting regional dynamics.

Late Antiquity and Decline

In the 4th and 5th centuries CE, Cumae faced significant challenges from barbarian incursions that destabilized the and its Italian territories. The under King invaded and sacked in 410 CE, creating widespread disruption in and contributing to the economic strain on coastal cities like Cumae. Similarly, the , led by King , conducted devastating raids across , including the sack of in 455 CE, which exacerbated the decline of urban centers in the region through plunder and population displacement. Amid these upheavals, Cumae saw a gradual shift from its renowned pagan religious sites—particularly the of the —to emerging Christian centers, reflecting the broader empire-wide decline of paganism under Christian emperors like . The 6th century brought further turmoil through the between the and the . In 536 CE, general captured Cumae as part of Emperor Justinian I's reconquest of , fortifying the as a strategic stronghold. The city briefly fell to the Ostrogothic king in 542 CE but was recaptured by forces under in 553 CE, where the general discovered a significant portion of the Gothic treasury hidden within its walls. Following the reconquest, the invasions beginning in 568 CE under King further weakened Cumae, as the Germanic overran much of , reducing its population and transforming it into a peripheral settlement overshadowed by nearby . By the early medieval period, Cumae's decline accelerated due to environmental factors and ongoing threats. The silting of its harbor and the formation of coastal marshes fostered outbreaks, which severely depopulated the area as residents succumbed to the disease or fled inland. Saracen raids in the compounded these issues, leaving the site sparsely inhabited and vulnerable. The city's final destruction occurred in 1207 CE, when Neapolitan forces, acting amid regional power struggles involving Frederick II, sacked Cumae—then a —and razed its walls, leading to permanent abandonment. Its territory was subsequently incorporated into the of Aversa.

Religious History

Pagan Worship and Oracles

Cumae's pre-Christian religious landscape was dominated by the cult of Apollo, whose temple on the acropolis served as a focal point for civic worship from the Archaic period onward. Constructed in the late 7th or early 6th century BCE, the original temple featured Doric architectural elements, including a peristyle of tuff blocks quarried locally from the volcanic terrain, reflecting the Greek colonists' adaptation to the Campanian environment. This structure, measuring approximately 34 by 16 meters, underwent multiple renovations, with foundations and column bases surviving to indicate a peripteral layout typical of early Western Greek sanctuaries. The temple functioned as the primary site for communal rituals, including sacrifices and festivals honoring Apollo as protector of the colony, integrating oracular consultation into public decision-making processes. The Apollo cult at Cumae incorporated prophetic traditions distinct from the legendary Sibylline figure, emphasizing direct oracular responses attributed to the god himself during ecstatic rituals. Priests or priestesses likely delivered these non-Sibylline prophecies in the temple's or adjacent sacred spaces, drawing on Apollo's established role as a of in Greek colonial contexts. Archaeological evidence, such as terracotta votives depicting prophetic scenes and inscribed dedications invoking Apollo's foresight, supports the integration of oracular practices into daily religious life from the BCE. These consultations addressed matters of state, , and warfare, underscoring Apollo's prominence in maintaining the colony's and defense against local Italic threats. Complementing the Apollonian focus, Cumae hosted sanctuaries dedicated to and Kore, reflecting the agricultural concerns of its Greek settlers. These sites, located in the and extramural areas, yielded numerous votive offerings from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, including terracotta figurines of the goddesses, miniature altars, and fragments depicting . Inscriptions on stone bases and metal dedications, often in Euboean dialect, record vows for bountiful harvests and safe , indicating women's prominent role in these mystery-influenced cults. The sanctuaries featured simple altars and deposition pits for grain and animal remains, emphasizing chthonic aspects of Demeter's domain without elaborate temple structures. Chthonic worship near Cumae extended to ritual sites around , approximately 5 kilometers west of the city, where the volcanic crater's sulfurous fumes evoked associations. From the 6th century BCE, these locations served as venues for necromantic rituals and offerings to and other earth deities, involving libations and animal sacrifices in natural grottos and shoreline altars. Literary and epigraphic evidence, including references in Pseudo-Scymnus to an underground called Kerberion, highlights the site's role in consulting the dead, distinct from Apollonian but intertwined with broader pagan practices. Votive deposits of lamps, coins, and biers from this period confirm ongoing use for funerary and initiatory ceremonies, reinforcing Cumae's reputation as a liminal zone between the living and divine realms.

Christian Era and Bishopric

The transition to in Cumae occurred during the late Roman period, with the establishment of a bishopric around 450 CE as part of the of . This development reflected the broader of following the in 313 CE and the increasing influence of the Church in former pagan centers. By the mid-5th century, Cumae had become an important Christian site, with early churches repurposing structures from its Greco-Roman past. The first historically attested of Cumae was , who participated in the Roman synod of 499 CE convened by to address disputes and affirm papal authority. Subsequent resident played active roles in regional synods and councils, contributing to the administration of the faith amid Lombard invasions and Byzantine reconquests. Notable figures include Stephanus, documented in 649 CE at the Lateran Synod under , and Proculus, who attended the Third Council of in 680–681 CE, where he subscribed to decrees condemning . Other , such as II in the , are recorded in papal correspondence addressing local church governance and property disputes. The last known resident dates to the , after which the see declined due to the city's diminishing population and strategic importance. The of Cumae was nominally suppressed in 1053, with its territory merged into the Diocese of Aversa following the suppression of the neighboring Diocese of Atella. However, the formal end came in 1207, when the city was destroyed by the forces of the , leading to the complete absorption of its ecclesiastical lands into Aversa. Thereafter, the Archbishops of assumed the title of of Cumae as an honorary adjunct. In 1970, the revived Cumae as a Latin , assigned to bishops serving in other capacities without a residential . Early modern incumbents included Louis-Marie-Joseph de Courrèges d'Ustou, appointed on September 2, 1970, and serving briefly until December 10 of that year, and Edoardo Pecoraio, appointed as on December 28, 1971, and holding the title until his death in 1986. Subsequent holders have included figures such as José Manuel Estepa Llaurens (1998–2021) and the current incumbent, Julio María Elías Montoya, O.F.M., appointed on 17 November 1986 and remaining in the role as of 2025. This titular status preserves Cumae's ecclesiastical legacy in the Roman Catholic hierarchy.

Urban Development

City Layout and Fortifications

The of ancient Cumae, situated on a prominent hilltop overlooking the , formed the upper city and served as a key defensive stronghold, housing temples and elite residences within its fortified enclosure. The acropolis walls, constructed primarily from local blocks, enclosed both the hill and its southern spur, providing natural and artificial defenses against invaders from the early phases of Greek colonization. These fortifications were integral to the city's , separating the elevated sacred and administrative core from the expanding lower town below. The extended from the toward the harbors, incorporating residential quarters, the agora, and areas for commerce, with direct access to the sea facilitating trade and naval operations. Archaeological surveys reveal that the lower city's defenses included ramparts along the slopes and a surveyed area of approximately 0.24 square kilometers, encompassing key urban features like Roman-era roads and the forum. During the , the lower city saw significant expansion, with more structured residential layouts adapting to the terrain while maintaining connectivity to the upper . Cumae's fortifications evolved over centuries, beginning with Greek-era constructions featuring polygonal and terraced ramparts for enhanced defense. The northern section of the walls exhibits at least five distinct building phases spanning the 6th to 1st centuries BCE, reflecting adaptations to threats from , Oscans, and later Romans. In the Roman period, these Greek walls were reinforced with added towers and integrated into a broader circuit that protected the growing urban expanse, incorporating elements like bastions rebuilt in later Byzantine times for continued strategic use.

Infrastructure and Monuments

The Arco Felice, a prominent Roman , was constructed in the late CE under Emperor around 95 CE as part of infrastructure enhancements in . Standing approximately 20 meters high, it spans the Via Domitiana, the key Roman road linking to , with an opening of about 7 meters; the arch facilitated access to Cumae by bridging a cutting through Monte Grillo excavated by in 95 CE to improve road access. The Crypta Romana, a sophisticated 1st-century BCE tunnel, exemplifies Augustan-era feats, measuring roughly 300 meters in length and connecting Cumae's inland lake to the . Carved into the limestone base of the , it served dual purposes of drainage to mitigate flooding in the marshy and as a vital access route linking the port to the city's forum, enhancing military logistics during Augustus's campaigns. The structure features opus vittatum masonry in its forecourt, niches for statuary, and associated cisterns with a combined capacity exceeding 35,000 cubic meters fed by aqueducts, demonstrating advanced hydraulic management; it remained in use until the CE before repurposing for burials. Cumae's Roman public infrastructure included the Forum Baths (Terme del Foro), a central bathing complex integrated into the lower city's civic core during the Imperial period, supplied by the Augustan Aqueduct of Serino and local cisterns holding up to 525 cubic meters for thermal operations. Outlines of a Roman amphitheater, dating to the 1st-2nd centuries CE, have been traced south of the forum, indicating a venue for spectacles accommodating several thousand spectators, though largely subterranean and overgrown today. On the , a medieval —known as a castrum—utilized ancient ruins for fortifications from the Byzantine era onward, incorporating a tower for defense amid the site's decline into a stronghold with dwellings and churches until the .

Archaeology

Excavation History

The first recorded archaeological excavations at Cumae occurred in , uncovering thirteen statues and two marble bas-reliefs from the site's ancient layers. In the , efforts intensified under the patronage of the Bourbon rulers of the Two Sicilies, with Prince Leopold, Count of Syracuse and brother to King Ferdinand II, directing systematic digs from 1852 to 1857 in the Masseria del Gigante area and surrounding necropoleis, which helped reveal elements of the acropolis. Further work in the late , led by archaeologist Emilio Stevens from 1878 to 1893, targeted the necropolises, though these were hampered by looting due to the high value of uncovered items. Entering the 20th century, Italian authorities oversaw major excavations on the starting in 1911, which brought to light the Temple of Apollo. In the mid-20th century, from 1938 to 1953, more systematic surveys focused on the , elucidating its urban layout, while between 1924 and 1934, archaeologists Amedeo Maiuri and Vittorio Spinazzola extended explorations to key structures including the Temple of , the Cave of the , and the Crypta Romana. Later projects in the 1990s, such as the "Kyme" initiative starting in 1994, completed earlier unfinished work on tombs and revealed additional Roman features. In recent decades, international collaborations have advanced the site's study, with the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) leading excavations since 2001 in a dating from the 6th to 1st centuries BCE outside the Porta Mediana, unearthing hundreds of sepulchres and chambers. These ongoing French-Italian efforts, involving institutions like the École française de Rome, culminated in the 2018 discovery of a painted tomb from the 2nd century BCE during work.

Key Discoveries and Artifacts

One of the most iconic discoveries at Cumae is the Cave of the Sibyl, a subterranean tunnel complex dating to around 500 BCE and measuring approximately 130 meters in length, carved into the rock of the . This trapezoidal passageway, with its sloping walls and multiple openings, was constructed to facilitate oracular consultations by the , a priestess associated with Apollo. Acoustic studies reveal that the cave's design enhances sound propagation, allowing a voice from the inner chamber to echo dramatically through the tunnel, which likely amplified the prophetic experience for ancient visitors. The walls preserve graffiti, including inscriptions invoking the , attesting to its prolonged ritual use from the Archaic period onward. Excavations at the Temple of Apollo on the have yielded significant sculptures. Later Roman-era finds from the site include 1st-century CE marble portrait heads, such as those of imperial figures or local elites, showcasing refined Hellenistic influences in portraiture. Among other notable artifacts, a 2nd-century BCE painted tomb uncovered in 2018 stands out for its well-preserved frescoes depicting banquet scenes, including a nude servant carrying a wine and vase, alongside kraters, amphorae, and landscape elements on walls. This rare example of funerary art suggests the high social status of its occupants and echoes earlier Hellenistic styles, providing evidence of cultural continuity in Cumae's . The broader yields spanning the 8th to 3rd centuries BCE, containing imported and local Greek such as Geometric and Proto-Corinthian vessels, which illustrate networks and the colony's Euboean origins.

Cultural Legacy

Mythological Role

In Greco-Roman mythology, Cumae held a prominent position as the home of the Cumaean Sibyl, a prophetic priestess of Apollo known as Deiphobe, who served as the oracle at the ancient Greek colony. According to Virgil's Aeneid (Book 6), Deiphobe guided the Trojan hero Aeneas to the underworld, providing him with prophecies and instructions for his descent to consult the spirit of his father Anchises. She advised Aeneas to pluck the golden bough from a sacred grove near Cumae as a prerequisite for entry and led him through ritual preparations, emphasizing her role as an intermediary between the mortal world and divine realms. The region's mythological significance extended to its associations with the , particularly through (Lacus Avernus), a near Cumae renowned for its mephitic vapors that were said to kill birds and render the area birdless—hence its name, derived from aornos meaning "without birds." In Virgil's narrative, this lake served as the primary entrance to , where and the entered via a cavernous portal after performing sacrifices, encountering mythical figures and the souls of the dead along the way. The site's chthonic aura also linked it to other heroic myths; ancient sources, including the historian Ephorus, described as an access point to the used by during his twelfth labor to capture , the multi-headed guard dog of , while traditions connected the area to Orpheus's ill-fated descent to retrieve his wife . Local legends further entrenched Cumae's mystical reputation, portraying the Sibyl's cave on the as her prophetic dwelling, a vast underground gallery inspired by natural fissures and volcanic features that amplified echoes and vapors, evoking . This cave, described by ancient authors like Varro as the Sibyl's haunt for issuing oracles on leaves scattered by wind, became a symbol of Cumae's foundational prophetic authority. The colony's mythological narratives also intertwined with the founding myths of nearby settlements, such as Neapolis (modern ).

Influence in Literature and Modern Perception

Cumae's legacy, particularly through the figure of the , has profoundly shaped Western literature, beginning with Virgil's (19 BCE), where the Sibyl serves as Aeneas's guide to the , a pivotal episode that established her as a of prophetic and liminal passage between worlds. This portrayal not only popularized the Sibyl in Roman epic tradition but also influenced subsequent medieval and interpretations, integrating her into as a prefiguration of divine . In , the Sibyl's image gained prominence during the , most notably in Michelangelo's of the Cumaean Sibyl on the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–1512), where she is depicted as a muscular, contemplative figure holding a scroll, embodying intellectual and prophetic vigor amid the chapel's prophetic cycle. The Romantic era further romanticized Cumae's ruins; , during his 1787 visit, described the site's evocative desolation in Italian Journey (1816–1817), capturing its melancholic allure as a bridge to antiquity and inspiring later travelers' fascination with its mythic atmosphere. In contemporary culture, Cumae endures as a touchstone for fantasy media, with the Aeneid's underworld descent informing tropes of prophetic guides and infernal journeys, as seen in Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy (1995–2000), where sibylline figures echo the Cumaean oracle's role in navigating otherworldly realms. Today, the site draws tourists as the "Sibyl's city," its archaeological park highlighting the Cave of the Sibyl and ruins, which annually attract visitors seeking to experience the blend of Greek colonial history and legendary prophecy.

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