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Anthrenus
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Anthrenus
Young imago of Anthrenus verbasci
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Family: Dermestidae
Tribe: Anthrenini
Genus: Anthrenus
Geoffroy, 1762[1]
Subgenera

Anthrenus is a genus of beetles in the Dermestidae family, skin beetles. One of several genera of carpet beetles, Anthrenus was historically placed in a subfamily Anthreninae, though presently included in the Megatominae. The genus Neoanthrenus is closely related.

Anthrenus carpet beetles are small beetles a few (1.8-4mm) millimeters long with a rounded shape. Their antennae bear small clubs at the end, which are larger in the males than in females. Many have a delicate pattern, with a dark body covered in colorful scales of various brown, tan, red, whitish and grey hues. These scales rub off easily and old individuals are often partially devoid of them, showing the shining black elytra. A considerable number of subspecies and varieties have been named, but it is questionable whether these are all valid or simply refer to such age-related differences. The massive number of species has been divided into several subgenera, but these are not too firmly established. The small subgenus Helocerus for example is sometimes entirely included in Florilinus. Also, new species are being described every now and then.[verification needed]

The majority of species associated with this genus are found in the semiarid regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, however the species commonly found indoors as pests are found worldwide.[2] Most species are harmless pollen-eaters, with the long-haired larvae feeding on a wide range of dead animal or plant matter making them important decomposers. Some however, most notably the museum beetle (A. museorum), are significant pests infesting stored goods and especially biological specimens in museum collections. Their larvae may cause considerable damage to wool, fur, feathers, and natural history collections.[3] Due to their larvae feeding on natural fibers they can be found laying eggs in carpets, hence the common name carpet beetles.

Primarily this genus breeds in the spring and the summer months living in temperate regions. They are found worldwide due to distribution and are presumed to have arrived in North America in the 1850s. In the wild adult carpet beetles are commonly found on flowering plants or occupying bird nests (such as sparrows and swallows) and bat roosts, though now more commonly as household pests.[4]

Taxonomy

[edit]

According to World Dermestidae catalogue (Jiří Háva, 2023), following taxonomic division is proposed for Anthrenus and related groups of Dermestidae, including Anthrenus and related genera:[5]

Species

[edit]
Old varied carpet beetle (A. verbasci) with most scales rubbed off
Anthrenus larvae feeding on Sceliphron destillatorium specimen
Anthrenus pimpinellae, probably male
common carpet beetle (A. scrophulariae), probably male
museum beetle (A. museorum), male

Anthrenus contains the following species:[6]

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Anthrenus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Anthrenus is a of small beetles belonging to the family , commonly referred to as carpet beetles or skin beetles. This , established by Étienne Louis Geoffroy in 1762, encompasses approximately 250–300 species worldwide, divided into 10 subgenera, with about 18 species occurring in the United States and . These beetles are characterized by their compact, oval-shaped bodies, typically measuring 1.8 to 4 mm in length, and feature 11-segmented antennae that are often clubbed. The adults of Anthrenus species are generally patterned with scales in shades of white, orange, or black on their elytra and , though these scales may wear off with age, revealing a darker underlying ; for instance, the common carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophulariae) exhibits a black head and accented by white scales and orange-red patches on the wings. Larvae, which are the primary damaging stage, are elongated, reddish-brown, and covered in tufts of hair, growing up to 5.5 mm over six instars. Native to semiarid regions of and , many species have become cosmopolitan through human activity, infesting indoor environments globally. Anthrenus beetles play a dual role in ecosystems and human spaces: adults are pollinators that feed on and from flowers, contributing to in temperate habitats like meadows. However, their larvae are notorious scavengers of keratin- and chitin-rich materials, feeding on , , feathers, , , and even specimens, leading to significant economic damage in households, warehouses, and cultural institutions. Species such as the (Anthrenus verbasci) and the common carpet beetle () are particularly widespread pests, with life cycles spanning several months to a year, including , larval, pupal, and stages. Additionally, Anthrenus species do not bite humans, as adults lack mouthparts capable of biting and do not feed on blood or skin; contact with the bristly hairs (setae) of larvae can cause skin irritation or rashes resembling bites in sensitive individuals, resulting from allergic reactions or contact dermatitis rather than actual biting. In cases of infestation, adult beetles may occasionally crawl on sleeping people, but they do not actively seek out humans as hosts unlike bed bugs.

Taxonomy

Etymology and History

The genus name Anthrenus is derived from the term anthrēnē (ἀνθρήνη), meaning "wasp" or "," with the New Latin -us. The Anthrenus was first established by the French entomologist Étienne Louis Geoffroy in his 1762 work Histoire abrégée des insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de , where he described several species based on specimens from , marking the initial recognition of these small dermestid beetles as a distinct group. Early classifications placed Anthrenus within broader dermestid groupings, but significant revisions occurred in the ; the Anthreninae was proposed by Johann Nepomuk Franz Xaver Gistel in 1856 to accommodate genera like Anthrenus, distinguishing them from other dermestids based on morphological traits such as antennal structure. However, Anthreninae was later recognized as a junior synonym of the earlier-established Megatominae (Leach, 1815), reflecting a consolidation of boundaries in dermestid . Throughout the 20th century, major taxonomic works refined the genus; for instance, E. R. Peacock's 1993 monograph on British dermestids emphasized antennal and genitalic characters for species delimitation within Anthrenus, influencing subsequent identifications. Jiří Háva's comprehensive catalogues advanced global understanding, with his 2003 World Catalogue of the Dermestidae listing over 200 species in Anthrenus and noting its placement in Megatominae, followed by updates in 2015 and 2023 that expanded the count to nearly 300 species across 10 subgenera, incorporating new synonymies and distributions. Recent nomenclatural changes up to 2025 include ongoing descriptions of cryptic and subgeneric adjustments; for example, a 2021 revision by Holloway et al. described Anthrenus (s. str.) corona from , resolving ambiguities in the A. pimpinellae complex, while a 2025 paper by Holloway and Herrmann named A. (Anthrenus) sexmaculatus from , highlighting continued taxonomic flux driven by detailed morphological analyses. The genus belongs to the tribe Anthrenini within Megatominae.

Classification and Phylogeny

Anthrenus is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, order Coleoptera, family Dermestidae, subfamily Megatominae, tribe Anthrenini, and genus Anthrenus. Phylogenetically, Anthrenus occupies a position within the monophyletic tribe Anthrenini of the subfamily Megatominae, which represents a diverse clade comprising approximately 62% of all known Dermestidae species and is characterized by adaptations to saprophagous and pollen-feeding lifestyles linked to angiosperm diversification. Within Anthrenini, the monophyly of Anthrenus is supported by shared morphological traits such as scaled elytra and antennal club structure, while it is more distantly related to genera in other subfamilies, including Attagenus in the earlier-diverging Attageninae. The of Anthrenus and its containing Anthrenini is robustly supported by both morphological and molecular . Morphological studies highlight synapomorphies like the compact body form, pubescent antennae, and larval setation patterns that distinguish Anthrenini from neighboring tribes such as Megatomini. Molecular analyses, including mitogenomic sequencing of 13 protein-coding genes across 36 species, confirm the monophyly of Megatominae and its internal tribes, with Anthrenus clustering within Anthrenini in Bayesian and maximum likelihood phylogenies. Earlier comparative mitogenomic work using protein-coding genes and rRNA sequences (including partial 16S rRNA) also places Anthrenus within a derived of Dermestidae, though with less resolution for intergeneric relations compared to full mitogenomes. As of 2025, the Anthrenus encompasses nearly 300 distributed across 10 subgenera, including Anthrenus s. str., Nathrenus, and Anthrenops, but taxonomic debates persist regarding the and boundaries of several subgenera due to overlapping morphological characters and limited molecular sampling. Recent revisions, such as extended redescriptions and new species designations within subgenera like Anthrenops and Florilinus, highlight ongoing efforts to resolve these issues through integrated morphological and genetic approaches, though comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of subgenera remain incomplete.

Morphology

Adult Characteristics

Adult Anthrenus beetles are small , typically ranging from 1.8 to 4 mm in length, with an oval and rounded body that imparts a compact, almost spherical form. This body shape aids in their identification within the family, as the dorsum is strongly convex and the head is often partially concealed by the pronotum. The antennae of adult Anthrenus are 11-segmented, terminating in a small, compact club composed of three enlarged segments, which is more pronounced and larger in males compared to females, representing a key aspect of . Coloration is highly variable but characteristically mottled, featuring scales in shades of brown, tan, red, whitish, or grey that cover the pronotum and elytra, creating irregular patterns; these scales often wear off with age, exposing the underlying black . The ventral surface tends to be paler, often with greyish-yellow scales.

Larval Characteristics

The larvae of Anthrenus species exhibit an elongated, carrot-shaped body form, typically measuring 4–5.5 in length when mature, with a narrower anterior end tapering to a broader posterior. Larvae typically undergo six instars before pupation. Their bodies are densely covered in setae, forming a woolly appearance often described as "woolly bears," with colors ranging from golden-brown to reddish-brown, and transverse bands of lighter and darker hairs across the segments. The head capsule is well-developed and prognathous, featuring strong, robust chewing mandibles adapted for processing tough materials. These larvae possess three pairs of thoracic legs, enabling slow, crawling locomotion with a wriggling motion; when disturbed, they often adopt a characteristic humpbacked or curled posture. The last three abdominal segments bear thick tufts of backward-growing setae, a trait distinctive to the genus Anthrenus and aiding in identification. These adaptations, including the dense setal covering, contrast with the scaled but less hairy form, highlighting the larval stage's specialized pest-related morphology.

Biology

Life Cycle Stages

Anthrenus species, like other dermestid beetles, undergo complete , or holometaboly, progressing through four distinct life stages: , , , and . This developmental pattern ensures that each stage has specialized morphology and adapted to specific ecological roles. The full life cycle typically spans 3 to 12 months under favorable conditions, though it can extend to 1–3 years in cooler environments or with limited resources. and food availability are primary factors influencing the pace, with warmer indoor settings accelerating development. Larval feeding habits, which sustain growth during the prolonged immature phase, can further modulate stage lengths. The larval stage is the longest and most variable, lasting from 2–3 months to 1–3 years depending on species, temperature, and food availability; larvae typically pass through 5–16 instars, growing while feeding on keratinous materials in dark, protected areas. Eggs are tiny, measuring approximately 0.5–1 mm in length, and are laid in clusters of 35–100 on or near suitable substrates such as animal-derived materials. Hatching occurs in 4–20 days, depending on environmental warmth, with the translucent, oval eggs often deposited in protected crevices. The pupal stage is non-feeding and transitional, lasting 8–21 days depending on species and temperature, during which the insect transforms within a protective enclosure formed by the shed larval skin or sometimes silk. Pupae are typically immobile and whitish, pupating in secluded spots near the larval food source to minimize exposure. This brief phase bridges the destructive larval period and the dispersive adult form.

Reproduction and Development

Mating in Anthrenus species typically occurs during spring and summer months, aligning with emergence periods such as June to July in temperate regions. Females emit a that attracts conspecific males, facilitating mate location through chemical cues detected primarily via the lamellate antennal clubs characteristic of dermestid beetles. This release is associated with a calling in females, synchronized with diel rhythms of male responsiveness, enhancing success. Following mating, females of Anthrenus species, such as A. flavipes and A. verbasci, exhibit a pre-oviposition period of 3–14 days before beginning to lay eggs. Oviposition involves the deposition of 20–100 white, oval eggs over a 2–4 week period, with fecundity maximized when adults are provided diets including solutions supplemented with protein sources like albumen or ; for instance, A. verbasci females lay an average of 50 eggs without food but up to higher numbers with optimal nutrition. Eggs are preferentially laid in dark, humid cracks and crevices near suitable larval food sources, such as animal fibers or remains, to ensure offspring viability. Developmental rates in Anthrenus are strongly influenced by , with optimal growth occurring between 20–30°C; for example, egg incubation in A. sarnicus ranges from 15–32.5°C, achieving the highest hatch rate (85%) at 25°C. In cooler conditions below this range, larvae enter , a quiescent state regulated by an internal clock that synchronizes with seasonal cycles, allowing survival through winter. This typically affects late larval instars, interrupting development until warmer temperatures resume activity. In temperate zones, Anthrenus populations generally complete 1–3 generations per year, depending on species and local conditions; for instance, A. museorum produces one generation annually, with larvae overwintering in . Overwintering as larvae ensures synchronization with favorable breeding seasons, while multiple generations in warmer environments accelerate .

Ecology

Habitat Preferences

Species of the genus Anthrenus, commonly known as carpet beetles, primarily inhabit temperate to warmer regions worldwide, where adults are often found in open areas with abundant flowering plants such as those in the family, including species like ground elder () and wild carrot (). These beetles favor semiarid to temperate climates, with natural populations occurring in meadows, woodlands, and coastal areas supporting floral resources for adult foraging. Larvae, in contrast, seek out sheltered, organic-rich microhabitats that provide protection and suitable substrates, such as bird nests (e.g., those of sparrows, , starlings, and pigeons), bat roosts, wasp nests in attics, and accumulations of animal-derived materials like , , feathers, or . Additional microhabitats include webs, guano in caves, and human-modified sites like under home siding or in dried-milk factories and flour mills. Optimal environmental conditions for Anthrenus survival and development include temperatures between 20–30°C, with lower developmental thresholds around 9.6–11.3°C and faster life cycle completion at higher end of this range (e.g., eggs hatching in 10–12 days at 29°C versus 30–35 days at 18°C). Relative has little effect on development, though some studies indicate favorable conditions around 70% RH. These species generally avoid direct sunlight, with larvae preferring dark, secluded areas for protection and pupation, though adults may be attracted to light sources like windowsills. Anthrenus species exhibit strong adaptability to urban and indoor environments, often establishing invasive pest populations in heated buildings, museums, warehouses, and households, particularly in southern or temperate zones where outdoor survival is marginal during cooler months. This shift from natural habitats to anthropogenic ones is facilitated by entry through , , or infested materials, allowing persistence in controlled indoor settings that mimic preferred temperature and humidity levels. Such adaptations contribute to their patterns, though detailed geographic spread is addressed elsewhere.

Diet and Feeding Behavior

The adults of Anthrenus species primarily feed on and from flowers, showing a preference for plants in the family, such as ground elder (), where they are attracted by floral volatiles like and , as well as visual cues from white florets. This feeding occurs opportunistically on various blossoms, particularly those that are white or cream-colored, supporting their reproductive activities during the warmer months. In contrast, the larvae of Anthrenus are specialized feeders on keratin-rich materials, including , , feathers, , and dried animal or matter such as , stored cereals, and spices, which they encounter in natural habitats like animal dens, bird nests, webs, and bat guano. These larvae play an important ecological role as decomposers, breaking down organic debris and contributing to nutrient recycling in such environments. They exhibit voracious feeding behavior, rapidly consuming available resources while remaining cryptic and hidden to avoid detection, and will relocate to fresh food sources once a patch is depleted. Larval feeding is facilitated by robust mandibles for and specialized , often aided by in the gut, which enable the breakdown of tough proteins that are indigestible to most other . Adults, meanwhile, use their chewing mouthparts to access and consume grains, allowing efficient extraction of nutrients from floral resources. This dimorphic feeding underscores the genus's adaptability across life stages, with larvae focusing on proteinaceous and adults on carbohydrate-rich sources.

Diversity

Species Overview

The genus Anthrenus Geoffroy, 1762, belongs to the subfamily Megatominae within the family and encompasses over 280 described worldwide as of 2024, with new taxa continuing to be identified and described from various regions, such as Anthrenus sexmaculatus from in 2025. This diversity makes Anthrenus one of the largest genera in the , characterized by small, oval-bodied beetles typically measuring 1.5–4 mm in length, often with patterned scales on the elytra. The exhibit a range of colorations from mottled black and white to uniformly brown, adaptations that aid in among flowers and debris where adults are commonly found. Prominent species within the genus include Anthrenus verbasci (Linnaeus, 1758), widely recognized as the for its polymorphic elytral patterns and status as a cosmopolitan pest of stored products; Anthrenus museorum (Linnaeus, 1761), the museum beetle, notorious for infesting preserved specimens in collections; Anthrenus scrophulariae (Linnaeus, 1758), known as the common or buffalo carpet beetle, distinguished by its more uniform scaling and prevalence in temperate regions; and Anthrenus pimpinellae (Fabricius, 1775), the brown carpet beetle, featuring subdued brownish hues and association with woolen materials. These examples highlight the genus's ecological and economic significance, though the majority of remain less studied and are primarily known from regional faunistic surveys. The classification of Anthrenus into subgenera is tentative and ongoing, with approximately 10 recognized divisions such as Anthrenus s. str., Florilinus Mulsant & Rey, 1868, Nathrenus Casey, 1900, and Anthrenops Reitter, 1881, based primarily on antennal structure, scale patterns, and genitalic features. However, the taxonomy is unstable due to frequent synonymies and the description of cryptic , reflecting the challenges in resolving phylogenetic relationships within the . Distinguishing among Anthrenus species is complicated by significant morphological overlap in external traits, such as elytral scale arrangements and , often requiring dissection of male genitalia for reliable diagnosis or the application of using mitochondrial COI sequences to detect cryptic diversity. These methods have revealed previously unrecognized species complexes, particularly in the Palaearctic A. pimpinellae group, underscoring the need for integrated taxonomic approaches in ongoing revisions.

Geographic Distribution and Endemism

The Anthrenus is primarily native to the Palearctic , with most occurring in semiarid zones across , , and . These beetles thrive in dry, temperate environments such as steppes and Mediterranean scrublands, where they are often associated with and nests. For instance, like Anthrenus scrophulariae and Anthrenus pimpinellae (now recognized as a comprising over 20 taxa) exhibit broad distributions within this native range, extending from the eastward to . Due to human activities, Anthrenus species have been introduced to regions far beyond their native habitats, achieving cosmopolitan status in many cases. In , species such as Anthrenus verbasci and were first recorded around the 1850s, likely arriving via infested woolen goods and textiles transported during transatlantic trade. Similar introductions have occurred in and parts of , including , where A. scrophulariae has established populations. These non-native ranges now span the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australasian realms, facilitated by global commerce in animal-derived products. Endemism within Anthrenus is particularly pronounced in the Mediterranean Basin, a hotspot for species diversification due to its varied microclimates and isolated habitats. Several species are restricted to specific islands or coastal steppes, such as Anthrenus amandae, which is known only from in the and appears to be endemic to this location. Other examples include taxa from the A. pimpinellae complex confined to eastern islands like and , highlighting the role of geographic isolation in promoting local speciation. The spread of Anthrenus species is predominantly human-mediated, with infested household items, museum specimens, and stored products serving as key vectors for long-distance dispersal. Climate suitability, particularly warm and dry conditions, further enables establishment in new areas, though cooler temperate zones can limit populations of tropical-leaning species like Anthrenus flavipes. This combination of anthropogenic transport and environmental factors has transformed many native Palearctic species into widespread pests.

Human Interactions

Pest Status

Anthrenus species, commonly known as carpet beetles, are significant pests primarily due to the feeding activities of their larvae, which cause damage to a variety of natural materials. The larvae target keratin-rich substances, including , , , , and animal-based products, leading to economic losses in affected areas. In households, Anthrenus infestations commonly affect carpets, , , and stored textiles, where larvae create irregular holes and leave behind fecal pellets and shed skins as evidence of damage. These pests also impact museums and cultural collections, particularly species like Anthrenus museorum, which graze on preserved specimens, mounts, and insect collections, resulting in irreversible deterioration of historical artifacts. In agricultural settings, larvae can infest stored products such as cereals and grains, contributing to spoilage in warehouses and silos. The damage mechanisms involve larval chewing that produces patchy, irregular holes in fabrics and materials, often accompanied by (fecal pellets) and cast larval skins, which serve as key indicators of active infestations. These effects extend culturally, as seen in the degradation of ethnographic textiles and exhibits in global institutions. Additionally, Anthrenus beetles do not bite humans. Adult beetles lack mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and do not feed on blood or living human tissue. Larvae also do not bite. However, exposure to the barbed setae (hairs) on the larvae can cause allergic or irritant reactions in humans, including dermatitis, urticaria, and pruritus, particularly in sensitive individuals after prolonged contact. These reactions often resemble insect bites but result from irritation by the setae rather than actual biting. During significant infestations, carpet beetles may occasionally crawl on sleeping people or be present in beds and bedding if found in nearby areas, but they do not actively seek out humans as hosts or feed on them in the manner of ectoparasites such as bed bugs. Historically, Anthrenus species were first noted as pests in 19th-century , where they damaged goods and early collections amid increasing trade in natural fibers. In modern times, infestations persist worldwide, with documented cases in diverse collections from the to , underscoring their ongoing threat to .

Identification and Control Methods

Identification of Anthrenus species, commonly known as varied or furniture carpet beetles, begins with recognizing adults as small, oval-shaped approximately 2-3 mm long, featuring mottled patterns of white, brown, yellow, and black scales on their backs. Larvae appear as elongated, hairy, tapered "woolly bears" up to 5-7 mm long, with tufts of brown hairs at the posterior end and a broader rear than front; they often leave behind shed skins, fecal pellets resembling salt grains, or irritating larval hairs in dust accumulations. Signs of infestation, such as irregular holes or surface abrasion on , , , or other animal-based materials, further confirm presence when combined with visual sightings. Monitoring involves regular inspections of dark, undisturbed areas like closets, attics, baseboards, and under furniture, where larvae thrive on lint, pet hair, or dead . Deploy pheromone-laced sticky traps or plain traps near windowsills and entry points to capture flying adults, especially in spring, and check them weekly to gauge infestation levels and locate sources. Light traps can also attract adults indoors, aiding in early detection before significant damage occurs. Control strategies emphasize and non-chemical methods first. thoroughly in infested areas, including cracks, crevices, and , then seal and dispose of the vacuum bag immediately to remove eggs, larvae, and shed skins. For infested items, launder in hot water (at least 49°C or 120°F for 30 minutes) or dry clean; alternatively, freeze artifacts or fabrics at -18°C (0°F) or lower for at least two weeks to kill all life stages. If non-chemical approaches are insufficient, apply targeted chemical treatments such as pyrethroid insecticides (e.g., , , or ) to cracks, crevices, and hiding spots, or use insect growth regulators like to disrupt larval development. Paradichlorobenzene (PDB) crystals or dichlorvos-impregnated strips can be used in sealed containers for stored items, but avoid broadcast spraying indoors. Prevention relies on integrated pest management (IPM) principles, starting with sealing entry points like cracks around doors and windows to block adult beetles from entering homes. Store susceptible materials in airtight containers or cold storage (below 4°C or 40°F), and incorporate natural repellents such as cedar blocks or lavender sachets in closets, though their efficacy is limited compared to physical barriers. Regular cleaning reduces food sources like pet hair and lint, minimizing re-infestation risks.

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  52. http://ij-entomology.online/ojs/index.php/ije/article/view/270
  53. https://collections.reading.ac.uk/cole-museum/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2023/08/A-review-of-the-Anthrenus-Geoffroy-1762-Dermestidae.pdf
  54. https://www.biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.4543.4.9
  55. https://www.whatseatingyourcollection.com/identify?obj=382
  56. https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/3104/3104-1588/3104-1588.html
  57. https://entomology.ucr.edu/ebelingchapter8
  58. https://citybugs.tamu.edu/factsheets/biting-stinging/others/ent-3006-2/
  59. https://www.healthline.com/health/do-carpet-beetles-bite
  60. https://museumpests.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Past-Present-and-Future-2014-Pinniger-with-text.pdf
  61. https://www.natsca.org/sites/default/files/publications/JoNSC-Vol7-Holloway_and_Pinniger_2020_0.pdf
  62. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/clothes-moths-carpet-beetles-controlling-fabric-pests
  63. https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/E-18/E-18.html
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