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Arid Diagonal
Arid Diagonal
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Map showing Köppens climate classification for South America. The arid diagonal can be seen in the form of the almost contiguous zone of BWh and BWk climate (red and pink on this map) running from Ecuador to Southern Patagonia.

The Arid Diagonal (Spanish: diagonal árida/arreica) is a contiguous zone of arid and semi-arid climate that traverses South America from coastal Peru in the Northwest to Argentine Patagonia in the Southeast, including large swathes of Bolivia and Chile.[1] The Arid Diagonal encompasses a number of deserts, including the Sechura, Atacama, Monte, and Patagonian.

The Arid Diagonal acts to isolate the temperate and subtropical forests of Chile and southern Argentina from other forests of South America.[2] Together with the Quaternary glaciations in the Southern Andes, the diagonal has controlled the distribution of vegetation throughout Chile and Argentina.[3]

The concept of a South American Arid Diagonal was first coined by French geographer Emmanuel de Martonne in his 1935 work Problème des régions arides Sud-Américaines.[4] However, few works dealing with the Arid Diagonal mention this foundational text.[4] The original Arid Diagonal of de Martonne went from Antofagasta in northern Chile to the northern coast of Argentine Patagonia.[4] However, other authors like Margarita González Loyarte (1995) later extended it to the coast of northern Peru.[4]

Cause and origin

[edit]

The northern portion of the Arid Diagonal is a result of the blocking of the trade winds by the barrier formed by the Central Andes and the South Pacific High.[5] To the south in the westerlies, the rain shadow that the Southern Andes cast over eastern Patagonia similarly blocks moisture.[1] South of Mendoza (32°53' S), the driest parts of the diagonal move away from the Andes as the mountains lose height, causing some humidity to penetrate; thus, at more southern latitudes the driest parts of the diagonal lie on the Atlantic coast of Patagonia.[1]

The Arid Diagonal has existed since the Neogene.[3] The origin of the aridity of the northern part of the diagonal is linked to two geologic events: a) the rise of the Andes — an event that led to the permanent block of both the westward flow of moisture along the tropics, and the eastward flow of moisture in Patagonia[6] and b) the permanent intrusion of cold Antarctic waters (the Humboldt Current) along South America's west coast.[5] Together with the Quaternary glaciations in the Southern Andes, the diagonal controls the distribution of the vegetation types over Chile and Argentina.[3]

References

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Arid Diagonal

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The South American Arid Diagonal (SAAD) is a prominent climatic and biogeographic feature consisting of a northwest-southeast trending band of arid and semi-arid ecosystems that spans much of the continent. It extends from the Pacific coast of northwestern and northern in the west, across the Andean highlands and , to the Atlantic coast of southeastern and northeastern in the east, spanning latitudes from approximately 5°S to 50°S. This diagonal belt, often divided into eastern and western components, separates the humid tropical regions to the north from the more temperate zones to the south, influencing regional patterns through its position relative to systems like the and westerly winds. The SAAD encompasses diverse ecological domains shaped by its variable aridity. The eastern SAAD includes the seasonally dry Caatinga (northeastern Brazil), the savanna-like Cerrado (central Brazil), and the subtropical Chaco (northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia), where annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 1,500 mm but features pronounced dry seasons. In contrast, the western SAAD comprises hyper-arid to semi-arid zones such as the Atacama Desert (northern Chile), the Monte Desert and Patagonia (Argentina), and high Andean plateaus like the dry Puna, with precipitation often below 200 mm per year and extreme diurnal temperature fluctuations. These conditions result from rain shadows cast by the Andes and subsidence in subtropical high-pressure systems, leading to low humidity, high solar radiation, and limited vegetation cover dominated by drought-adapted species. Ecologically and hydrologically significant, the supports unique , including endemic and adapted to , while serving as a critical corridor for migratory . It also hosts cryospheric features like and relict glaciers in its higher elevations, which act as vital water reservoirs in an otherwise desiccated landscape. Human populations have long inhabited these regions, with archaeological evidence indicating adaptive strategies to aridity fluctuations since the , underscoring the SAAD's role in shaping South American . Contemporary challenges include , climate change impacts on water availability, and land-use pressures from and .

Geography

Extent and Boundaries

The Arid Diagonal, or South American Arid Diagonal (SAAD), is a contiguous band of arid and semi-arid climates that spans diagonally from northwest to southeast, comprising both western and eastern components. The western component stretches from the coastal deserts of northwestern through , , and to the Patagonian steppes, while the eastern component extends from northeastern across central to northern , , and . This feature links hyperarid coastal and high-altitude regions in the west with semi-arid savannas and woodlands in the east, forming a major biogeographic barrier. The full zone spans approximately 3,500 km overall, with the western part covering about 3,000 km from the in (around 5°S) to the in southern (about 50°S). The eastern component ranges from roughly 5°S to 30°S, beginning in the of northeastern and extending through the of central to the Chaco in eastern , , and northern . The western edge follows the from to , with the eastern boundary of the western component along the Andean foothills; the overall eastern limit reaches the Atlantic coast in and the basin in . Key coordinates include the at 5°–6°S and 80°–81°W, the at 18°–27°S and 68°–70°W, the at 46°–50°S and 68°–72°W, the around 3°–11°S and 35°–42°W, the at 10°–25°S and 41°–55°W, and the Chaco at 17°–33°S and 58°–66°W. The diagonal includes major arid zones: in the west, the , hyperarid (including the ), high-altitude Monte Desert, Dry Puna, and ; in the east, the seasonally dry , savanna-like , and subtropical Chaco. Modern mapping uses Köppen-Geiger classification zones BWh (hot desert), BWk (cold desert), and semi-arid BSh/BSk subtypes to delineate the Arid Diagonal, influenced by Andean uplift and subtropical high-pressure systems.

Terrain and Landforms

The Arid Diagonal features diverse terrain across its western and eastern components, including coastal plains, mountain ranges, plateaus, basins, and inland lowlands shaped by tectonic, erosional, and depositional processes. In the west, narrow coastal plains along the Pacific of and give way to steep Andean cordilleras, intermontane basins like the Altiplano-Puna plateau, and wind-eroded Patagonian tablelands. The coastal plains are flat, gravel-covered, extending tens of kilometers inland before ascending to Andean foothills. The Patagonian plateaus are elevated basaltic and sedimentary surfaces, dissected by canyons and dry valleys. Elevation varies from sea level on western coasts to over 4,000 m in the , with at 6,962 m; intermontane basins like the and Bolivian lie at 3,000–4,000 m, with salt flats from ancient lakes. The Atacama includes sand dune fields, such as those in Valle de la Luna, and the ; the in covers about 10,000 km² at 3,656 m. Volcanic highlands in northern feature stratovolcanoes and lava flows, while the Monte Desert has badlands with gullies and buttes over areas up to 6,500 km². In the east, the occupies hilly to flat terrains in northeastern with rocky outcrops and seasonal streams; the spans central Brazilian plateaus (500–1,700 m) with undulating landscapes and gallery forests along rivers; the Chaco consists of vast alluvial plains (100–600 m) with palm savannas, marshes, and low hills, influenced by the and systems. The topography results from Nazca Plate subduction under South America, driving Andean uplift, faulting, and volcanism, with rain shadows enhancing aridity. Faults like the Calama-Olaroz belt form rift valleys, while eastern plains reflect sedimentary deposition from ancient seas and rivers.

Climate

Characteristics and Classification

The Arid Diagonal is classified primarily under the Köppen-Geiger system as BWh (hot desert climate) in its northern sections, such as the Atacama and Sechura Deserts, where hot, dry conditions prevail due to minimal and high solar radiation. In the southern portions, including the , it transitions to BWk ( desert climate), characterized by cooler temperatures influenced by higher latitudes and oceanic effects. These arid (B) climates are defined by potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeding , distinguishing them from more humid zones. Key climatic traits include annual precipitation varying widely from less than 10 mm in hyper-arid zones to 300–1,000 mm in semi-arid sectors, with potential evapotranspiration exceeding throughout and defining the arid/semi-arid conditions, though all areas feature pronounced dry seasons. Hyper-arid conditions in the Atacama reach less than 1 mm per year in some interior spots, making it the driest non-polar location on . High diurnal ranges, often up to 30°C, result from intense daytime heating and rapid nocturnal cooling under clear skies. Low relative humidity, typically below 30% in inland areas, exacerbates , though coastal zones experience frequent camanchaca , a stratiform layer providing limited via . Annual mean temperatures average 15–25°C in the northern sections, reflecting subtropical influences and variations. These drop to 5–15°C in the Patagonian south, where westerly winds moderate extremes but maintain dryness. rates significantly exceed regionally, driven by high insolation and low , which intensifies water deficits and sustains processes.

Regional Variations

The Arid Diagonal exhibits significant north-south climatic gradients, transitioning from hyper-arid coastal deserts in the north to semi-arid inland plateaus in and cold, windy steppes in the south, primarily driven by latitudinal shifts in patterns. These variations result in distinct regimes and temperature profiles across the region, with overall aridity maintained by the Andean but modulated by local and seasonal influences. Recent observations (2019–2025) indicate heightened risks in central and eastern sectors due to La Niña influences and , with reductions exacerbating aridity. In the northern sector, spanning coastal and Andean regions of Peru and , hyper-arid conditions prevail with annual precipitation typically below 50 mm, and in extreme cases as low as 5 mm in the core, due to the dominance of the subtropical high-pressure system over the Southeast Pacific that inhibits convective activity and moisture influx. The cold further enhances stability along the coast, preventing significant rainfall, while rare events of tropical moisture advection occasionally bring isolated storms. The central sector, covering highland areas in and northern including the Puna and fringes of the Chaco, features semi-arid transitions with annual increasing to 300–700 mm, largely from seasonal summer monsoons that deliver from the via easterly flows penetrating the Andean gaps. This contrasts with the north's uniformity, as the weakening subtropical high allows for more variable convective rainfall during the austral summer, though rates remain high due to intense solar radiation at altitude. Further south in , the climate shifts to cold arid conditions with 100–300 mm of annual , predominantly in winter as or from cyclonic disturbances associated with the , which are partially blocked by the creating a pronounced . Persistent high winds, often exceeding 50 km/h and sourced from these , exacerbate by enhancing and , distinguishing this sector from the warmer, more stable northern and central zones. Microclimates introduce localized contrasts, especially in the northern coastal areas where persistent fog from the provides the primary moisture source, forming oases that receive equivalent water inputs of up to 100 mm annually through on coastal hillslopes, enabling brief seasonal greening amid surrounding hyper-aridity. Inland versus coastal divides are less pronounced southward, but topographic relief in the central and southern sectors can amplify orographic effects, slightly elevating in windward Andean slopes compared to leeward basins. These microclimatic features align with broader Köppen arid classifications but highlight the Diagonal's internal heterogeneity.

Formation and Causes

Geological Origins

The Arid Diagonal, a vast arid belt traversing from the Pacific coast of northwestern and northern to the Atlantic coast of southeastern and northeastern , originated during the period (23–2.6 million years ago) as a consequence of the , driven by the of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. This tectonic process initiated in the but accelerated in the , leading to the progressive uplift of the Andean cordillera and the establishment of topographic barriers that fundamentally altered regional moisture patterns. The orogenic activity thickened the continental crust and elevated the terrain, setting the stage for long-term desiccation across what would become the Arid Diagonal. A pivotal phase occurred during the (23–5.3 million years ago), when accelerated uplift in the central and southern created pronounced rain shadows by blocking eastward moisture from the and Atlantic influences. This uplift, reaching significant elevations by the middle around 14–12 million years ago, diverted prevailing winds and precipitated the onset of aridity in the western Andean foreland and intermontane basins. Evidence from paleosols and sedimentary records corroborates this timeline, with gypsic paleosols in the indicating hyperarid conditions emerging between 12 and 10 million years ago, marked by accumulation and depleted oxygen isotopes reflecting minimal . Similarly, sedimentological analyses reveal a shift to xeromorphic vegetation and evaporative deposits around 10–15 million years ago, underscoring the widespread linked to these tectonic barriers. Subsequent Pliocene cooling (5.3–2.6 million years ago), associated with global climatic shifts including Antarctic glaciation, further intensified desiccation across the by enhancing atmospheric stability and reducing convective rainfall. This period amplified the effects, promoting the entrenchment of dry conditions in elevated regions. Basin development, particularly the formation of the Puna Plateau through Miocene-to- shortening and crustal thickening, played a crucial role by creating enclosed topographic lows that trapped subsiding dry air masses, exacerbating aridity in the high-altitude interior. Uplift records from the southern Puna indicate surface elevations exceeding 2 km by the , contributing to the plateau's role as a persistent arid core within the Diagonal. These geological features continue to influence modern , maintaining the Diagonal's dry regime.

Atmospheric and Oceanic Factors

The aridity in the northern sector of the Arid Diagonal, encompassing the and adjacent Peruvian coastal deserts, is primarily maintained by the persistent South Pacific High-pressure system, a subtropical anticyclone centered around 25°–30°S that induces strong and descending dry air over the region. This high-pressure belt suppresses convective activity and blocks the northward penetration of moist westerly winds, while from the southeast carry dry air toward the continent. The Mountains exacerbate this dryness through a pronounced effect, where easterly moisture flows from the are orographically lifted and precipitated on the eastern slopes, leaving the western slopes hyperarid with annual precipitation often below 10 mm in core areas. In the southern sector, extending through the Monte Desert and into Patagonia, aridity is driven by the deflection of prevailing westerly winds by the Southern Andes, which create a leeward rain shadow that prevents moist Pacific air from reaching eastern Patagonia. These westerlies, intensified during austral winter by the subtropical jet stream positioned around 30°S, carry substantial moisture but are blocked, resulting in semi-arid to arid conditions with precipitation gradients dropping sharply east of the cordillera. Additionally, the cold Humboldt Current, an eastward-flowing upwelling system along the western South American coast, cools the overlying air, stabilizing the atmosphere and reducing evaporation rates while enhancing subsidence through thermal contrasts with warmer inland air. In the eastern sector, encompassing the , , and Chaco, aridity is characterized by seasonal dryness rather than year-round hyperaridity, resulting from the southward migration of the (ITCZ) during austral summer, which brings convective rainfall, contrasted by dry winters under the influence of the South Atlantic High-pressure system. This subtropical anticyclone promotes and diverts moist tropical air, leading to extended dry periods where is insufficient to prevent semi-arid conditions, with annual totals of 500–1,500 mm concentrated in a few months. The Andean uplift indirectly contributes by altering continent-wide circulation patterns, enhancing the separation between humid northern and drier southern . Seasonal dynamics occasionally disrupt this persistent dryness, particularly through El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, which weaken the South Pacific High and allow anomalous eastward moisture transport, leading to rare heavy rainfall. For instance, the strong 2016–2017 El Niño event produced unprecedented torrential rains in the , with accumulations exceeding 100 mm in some areas—over ten times the annual average—triggering floods and landslides across northern . Such events highlight the role of teleconnections in temporarily alleviating aridity, though they revert to dry conditions post-ENSO as the high-pressure system reestablishes dominance. Broader reinforces these patterns via the positioning of the , which enhances over the Arid Diagonal by promoting divergence aloft and low-level stability, particularly during winter when the jet shifts equatorward. This inversion, often capped at 1000 m above along the coast, traps dry air and inhibits vertical motion, sustaining the region's extreme year-round while interacting with the to limit any significant moisture influx.

Ecology

Flora

The flora of the Arid Diagonal is characterized by sparse, highly specialized plant communities dominated by thorny shrubs, succulents, and drought-deciduous species that thrive in extreme aridity. In the semi-arid zones of the Chaco and Monte deserts, algarrobo trees (Prosopis spp.) form scattered woodlands, providing key structural elements alongside thorny shrubs like Ziziphus mistol and Geoffroea decorticans. Succulents such as prickly pear cacti (Opuntia spp.) are prevalent across the diagonal, particularly in the Atacama and Monte regions, where their flattened pads store water and spines deter herbivores. These vegetation types reflect adaptations to low and erratic precipitation, with overall plant cover often below 20% in the driest interiors. Vegetation exhibits distinct zonal patterns along the diagonal's latitudinal gradient. In the northern coastal sectors of the , formations—-dependent oases—support herbaceous communities of annuals and geophytes, including species from the genera Nolana, Alonica, and Cristaria, which rely on camanchaca for during the fog season (June to October). Further south in the Patagonian , cooler semi-arid conditions foster communities dominated by bunchgrasses like Stipa speciosa and ligularis, interspersed with plants and low shrubs that stabilize sandy soils against wind . These patterns underscore the influence of coastal in the north and continental aridity in the south on plant distribution. Many species exhibit physiological and morphological adaptations to water scarcity, including crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis, which minimizes daytime transpiration by fixing CO₂ at night. This is evident in Atacama succulents like Cistanthe spp. and non-succulent shrubs such as Bulnesia retama in arid South American zones. Deep taproot systems, extending up to several meters, enable access to subsurface water, as seen in Prosopis and Opuntia species. Additionally, physical dormancy in seeds allows prolonged viability, with germination triggered by rare rainfall events; for instance, Nolana spp. seeds can remain dormant for years until suitable moisture arrives. These traits enhance survival in environments with annual rainfall often below 100 mm. Endemism is pronounced in isolated pockets, driven by topographic barriers and microclimatic refugia. The hosts approximately 550 native species, with about 60% endemic, including the Nolana genus (ca. 92 ), which has radiated extensively in fog-influenced coastal habitats. High rates, exceeding 60% in some Atacama subregions, highlight the diagonal's role as a for xerophytes, with many restricted to or hyper-arid valleys. Flora in the Arid Diagonal faces threats from habitat degradation, including by , invasive species introduction, and climate change-induced shifts in patterns and , which exacerbate and reduce suitable habitats for endemic xerophytes.

Fauna

The fauna of the Arid Diagonal is dominated by species adapted to extreme aridity, high elevation, and temperature fluctuations, with notable representatives among mammals, birds, and reptiles. Andean camelids such as the (Vicugna vicugna) are key herbivores in the high plateaus spanning , , , and , where they graze on sparse grasses at elevations exceeding 3,500 meters. The (Lama guanicoe), a larger wild camelid, occupies a broader range across the diagonal's deserts, from the hyper-arid Atacama in the north to the Monte Desert in the south, serving as a primary prey species for carnivores. In the salars of the Bolivian , flamingos including the (Phoenicoparrus andinus) and (Phoenicoparrus jamesi) form large colonies, filtering and from hypersaline waters. The culpeo fox (Lycalopex culpaeus), South America's second-largest wild canid, inhabits Andean slopes and arid lowlands, preying on rodents, lagomorphs, and small birds. Reptiles like lizards of the genus Liolaemus, including Liolaemus fuscus and Liolaemus fabiani, thrive in the coastal and inland deserts, with some species restricted to fog-dependent microhabitats in the Atacama. Adaptations to the diagonal's challenging conditions are evident in behavioral and physiological traits that prioritize energy and . The culpeo fox exhibits primarily nocturnal or crepuscular activity in arid regions, allowing it to forage during cooler periods while minimizing evaporative loss. In contrast, Liolaemus lizards are diurnal, relying on daytime basking for in the extreme desert environment. Camelids such as vicuñas and guanacos derive a significant portion of their hydration from metabolic water produced during of dry forage, supplemented by efficient kidney function that concentrates urine. Guanacos further exhibit migratory behaviors, undertaking elevational movements across the to reach oases and seasonal vegetation pulses, driven by forage availability and snowmelt. Biodiversity hotspots within the Arid Diagonal highlight regional , particularly in the Monte Desert of central , where endemic like the red viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae) occupy dune habitats and specialize in seed caching and predator avoidance through acute hearing. This area supports high small-mammal diversity, with over 20 species exhibiting convergent adaptations to , such as elongated hindlimbs for saltation. Avian migrations traverse the diagonal, with flamingos moving between salars for breeding and feeding, linking wetlands across and in response to algal blooms. Habitat fragmentation poses a severe threat to the diagonal's , driven by , construction, and , which isolate populations and disrupt migration corridors. The endangered Andean cat (Leopardus jacobita), a small felid endemic to the high within the diagonal, is particularly vulnerable, with loss reducing prey availability and increasing human- conflict.

Paleoenvironment and Human Interaction

Quaternary and Holocene Developments

The period in the Arid Diagonal was marked by significant climatic fluctuations driven by global ice ages, with the (LGM) around 21,000–18,000 years ago representing a key phase of temporarily wetter conditions in many sectors of the region. Proxy records from lake sediments indicate expanded lacustrine systems and river networks, particularly in the , where reached highstand levels under fresher, deeper conditions due to increased and reduced evaporation from cooler temperatures. In western tropical areas, and isotopic data from sediment cores suggest precipitation rates up to 3,000–3,400 mm/year, supporting denser vegetation and fluvial activity compared to modern aridity. These wetter phases contrasted with hyperarid cores like the , where low sedimentation and absent pollen indicate persistent dryness during the LGM, highlighting regional variability within the Diagonal. Transitioning into the around 11,700 years ago, the Arid Diagonal underwent progressive following the retreat of glaciers, with early conditions (~11,000–8,000 years ago) giving way to drier regimes that established the modern landscape. Radiocarbon-dated (14C) records from lake s, such as those at Laguna Miscanti in northern , document a peak in effective moisture during the early , with lake levels rising threefold above present and grasslands expanding, inferred from increased Gramineae and organic-rich deposits. By the mid- (~8,000–4,000 years ago), hypersaline evaporites and layers in these cores signal severe , with dropping to ~1,200 mm/year in western zones and shifting to sparse shrubs, as evidenced by declining diversity and . This phase, corroborated by and records across the Diagonal, reflects southward migration of the and intensified rain shadows from the . Coinciding with these climatic shifts, megafaunal extinctions swept the Arid Diagonal between ~12,900–12,700 calibrated years ago, affecting species like giant sloths, horses, and camels in southern , and glyptodonts in the . and dated bone assemblages link these losses to a synergistic interplay of rapid post-LGM warming, vegetation turnover from to , and early human hunting pressures following Clovis-like arrivals around 13,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of remains confirms dietary stress from , amplifying human impacts in resource-scarce environments. Persistent glacial landforms, such as moraines in the Andean cordillera, attest to the scale of these fluctuations.

Indigenous Peoples and Modern Impacts

The Arid Diagonal has been occupied by humans since the , with sites dating back approximately 13,000 years, as evidenced by archaeological remains in the and adjacent Andean regions. during the reveal three distinct phases of growth and decline, modeled through radiocarbon (14C) dating of over 1,000 samples from archaeological contexts across the region, indicating periods of demographic expansion around 8,000–5,000 years , stability, and later fluctuations linked to environmental variability. Indigenous groups such as the Atacameño, Aymara, and have developed sophisticated adaptations to the harsh arid conditions of the Arid Diagonal. The Atacameño people, inhabiting the in northern , constructed ancient terraced agricultural systems and irrigation networks to cultivate crops in hyper-arid valleys, with some terraces dating to the Late Intermediate Period (ca. AD 1000–1450) and still in use today. Aymara communities in the southern Peruvian and Bolivian highlands employed raised-field agriculture and terraced farming, including Inca-era systems like those near , to maximize water retention and soil fertility in semi-arid puna ecosystems. In the southern extensions of the Arid Diagonal in and , groups integrated with selective , adapting to semi-arid steppes through communal land management practices that sustained livelihoods amid variable rainfall. Modern human activities exert significant pressures on the Arid Diagonal's ecosystems. Copper mining, particularly in northern Chile's , consumes vast quantities of —approximately 170,000 cubic meters daily across major operations including (as of 2023)—leading to depletion and disruption in this hyper-arid zone. Agriculture relies on limited irrigation in scattered oases, such as those in Peru's coastal valleys, where overexploitation of aquifers supports and olive cultivation but exacerbates soil salinization. , driven by mining economies, has expanded cities like in , straining resources and contributing to informal settlements in semi-arid peripheries. intensifies these impacts, with projections indicating a 20–30% decline in across the Andean portions by 2100 under high-emission scenarios (as of 2021), worsening droughts and reducing availability. Conservation efforts in the Arid Diagonal include protected areas like Lauca National Park in northern , a Biosphere Reserve spanning 137,883 hectares of high-altitude puna, where community-led initiatives promote herding and habitat restoration to counter . However, poses ongoing challenges, affecting approximately 23% of 's land and threatening endemic species through and , necessitating integrated management that incorporates indigenous knowledge.

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