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Avi Weiss
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Avraham Haim Yosef Weiss (Hebrew: אברהם חיים יוסף הכהן ווייס; born June 24, 1944) is an American Open Orthodox ordained rabbi, author, teacher, lecturer, and activist who led the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale in The Bronx, New York until 2015. He is the founder of Yeshivat Chovevei Torah for men and Yeshivat Maharat for women, rabbinical seminaries that are tied to Open Orthodoxy, a breakaway movement that Weiss originated, which is to the left of Modern Orthodox Judaism and to the right of Conservative Judaism. He is co-founder of the International Rabbinic Fellowship, a rabbinical association that is a liberal alternative to the Orthodox Rabbinical Council of America, and founder of the grassroots organization Coalition for Jewish Concerns – Amcha.

Key Information

Semikhah (rabbinical ordination) of women by Weiss' movement has been a source of friction within Orthodox Judaism.

Early life and career

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Weiss was born to Moshe and Miriam Weiss.[1] His sister is Tova Reich. Weiss received his semikhah (rabbinical ordination) at the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary of Yeshiva University in 1968.

In 2013, Newsweek ranked Weiss the 10th most prominent rabbi in the United States,[2] climbing from number 11 in 2012 and number 12 in 2011,[3] after being ranked number 18 in 2010.[4]

On June 29, 2015, Weiss resigned from the Rabbinical Council of America (RCA) in protest over their decision to not accept graduates of his rabbinical seminary into the organization.[5][6][7][8][9]

Hebrew Institute of Riverdale

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Main article: Hebrew Institute of Riverdale

The Hebrew Institute of Riverdale (HIR) was founded in 1971 in a boiler room of the Whitehall Building off the Henry Hudson Parkway by former members of the Hebrew Institute of University Heights in the Bronx who had moved to Riverdale. Weiss, who had finished his training at Yeshiva University a few years earlier and held pulpits in Creve Coeur, Missouri and Monsey, New York, became the synagogue's rabbi in 1973.[10] The congregation has grown to 850 families, and has served as a platform for Weiss's rabbinical advocacy.[11] Weiss stepped down from the pulpit in July 2015,[12] and Steven Exler became HIR's senior rabbi. Weiss continues to remain on the synagogue's staff.[13]

On one Friday night, the synagogue introduced "the first woman to lead this service in an established Orthodox synagogue in front of a mixed congregation".[14]

Open Orthodoxy

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Main article: Open Orthodoxy

In 1997, Weiss started a new religious movement which he called Open Orthodoxy,[15] which is to the left of Modern Orthodox Judaism and to the right of Conservative Judaism. Weiss noted that the latter "is generally not composed of ritually observant Jews."[16]

Yeshivat Chovevei Torah

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Main article: Yeshivat Chovevei Torah

In 1999 Weiss founded Yeshivat Chovevei Torah (YCT), a rabbinic seminary in the Riverdale neighborhood of the Bronx after resigning from Yeshiva University, where he had taught at Stern College for Women for decades.[17][18] The school's graduates work as rabbis in synagogues, college Hillels and schools,[19] but the RCA does not permit membership to the school's graduates unless they have also been ordained by a traditional Orthodox rabbinical school.[20] In June 2013, Weiss handed over the presidency of YCT to Chicago rabbi Asher Lopatin.[19]

Ordination of Women

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In May 2009, Weiss announced the opening of Yeshivat Maharat, a new school to train women,[11] bestowing upon them the title Maharat, which he himself created.[21][22] Sara Hurwitz was appointed dean of Yeshivat Maharat.[23][24]

International Rabbinic Fellowship

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Along with Marc D. Angel, Weiss co-founded the International Rabbinic Fellowship. Founded as an alternative to the Orthodox RCA,[25] the organization was designed to accept YCT graduates.

Criticism

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Rabbis associated with the Orthodox Union, RCA and Modern Orthodox Judaism have opposed Weiss' Open Orthodoxy. Some have criticized his ordination of women rabbis as being incongruous with Orthodox Judaism, the stream of Judaism from which Weiss received his own semikhah.[26] Agudath Israel of America, while denouncing moves to ordain women, went a step further. On November 3, 2015 the Moetzes of Agudath Israel of America declared Open Orthodoxy, YCT, Yeshivat Maharat and other affiliated entities to be similar to other dissident movements throughout Jewish history in having rejected basic tenets of Judaism.[27][28][29] Still, Weiss has his defenders.

Weiss has encountered difficulties from the Israeli Rabbinate in regards to the acceptability of his conversions to Judaism.[30]

Activism

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Weiss has been vocal on many issues, including emigration and absorption of Soviet Jews, clemency for Jonathan Pollard, supporting Israel, preserving Holocaust memorials, and exposing antisemitism. In 1992 he founded Amcha – the Coalition for Jewish Concerns, a grassroots coalition engaging in pro-Jewish activism.[31] Weiss's lifetime of activism is presented in the documentary Righteous Rebel: Rabbi Avi Weiss.[32]

Soviet Jewry

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Weiss was an early leader of the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry, founded in 1964. It was one of the first American organizations working to free Russian Jews, who were not allowed to emigrate during the Soviet era. The group used demonstrations, lobbying, and education[33] to pressure the Soviet authorities into allowing Jews to leave the country.[34][35] During the 1970s and 1980s Weiss was best known for his slogan "1 2 3 4; Open up the Iron Door".[36][37][38] In 2015, Weiss published his memoir detailing his efforts to liberate Soviet Jews, Open Up the Iron Door: Memoirs of a Soviet Jewry Activist. The book focuses on how grassroots activism and acts of civil disobedience led to important policy changes for the Soviet Jews.[39]

Holocaust remembrance

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A response to his "Holocaust Symbols or Objects of Worship" article in the March/April 2002 issue of Martyrdom and Resistance was printed in the September/October issue. The 2-section article acknowledged that "the most trustworthy guardian of the memory .. is to be found in Judaism itself, in its liturgy and its religious calendar." The closing challenged Weiss to accept her idea of wearing a "yellow six-sided star ... for a few moments every year."[40]

In the United States

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Weiss was an official emissary of former New York Governor Mario Cuomo and former New York Mayor Rudolph Giuliani.[31]

Weiss has served as personal rabbi to Jonathan Pollard,[41] an American who spied for Israel sentenced to life in prison in 1987.[31] In 1992 Weiss was one of the signers of a full-page ad in The New York Times calling for the release of Pollard.[42] In 1989 Weiss conducted a "freedom Seder" in front of the prison where Pollard was incarcerated.[43]

At a speech at New York City Hall in 2001 Weiss criticized President George W. Bush for not making a clearer distinction between Arab acts of terrorism and Israeli acts of self-defense. "The trap that he's falling into is that he's drawn a moral equivalency between cold-blooded murder and acts of self-defense," Weiss said. [44]

In April 2002 Weiss organized a pro-Israel rally on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.,[45] and a boycott of several large newspapers perceived as having an anti-Israeli bias.[46]

In 2006 Weiss organized a protest in front of Syria's UN mission to denounce a Hezbollah offensive in the Middle East.[47]

In September 2011, Weiss was arrested in front of the U.N. building in New York while protesting the Palestinian statehood bid.[3]

In a July 15, 2015, Haaretz opinion piece, Weiss applauded the U.S. Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage, which he saw as a part of maintaining the separation of church and state and protecting his right to refuse to perform gay weddings. He stated that he would not participate in same-sex weddings, because doing so would run contrary to his religious commitments, but that he had met countless gay individuals and couples, some of whom were members of his synagogue, who lived loving, exemplary lives. "If I welcome with open arms those who do not observe Sabbath, Kashrut or family purity laws, I must welcome, even more so, homosexual Jews, as they are born with their orientation."[48]

In Europe

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Weiss has travelled worldwide as an activist in various causes.[49] In 1989 Weiss and others protested at a Carmelite convent that had been established at Auschwitz. The group – dressed in concentration camp clothing – scaled the walls of the convent, blew a shofar, and screamed anti-Nazi slogans. Workers evicted them from the site.[50] In an August 1989 speech, Cardinal Józef Glemp referenced the incident and ascribed a violent intent to the protesters, saying, "Recently, a squad of seven Jews from New York launched an attack on the convent at Oswiecim [Auschwitz]. They did not kill the nuns or destroy the convent only because they were stopped." In the same speech, Glemp made antisemitic remarks suggesting that Jews control the news media.[51] Alan Dershowitz filed a defamation suit against Glemp, then Archbishop of Warsaw, on behalf of Weiss.[51] In 1993 Pope John Paul II ordered the closure of the convent, which had been located in a converted building that had stored Zyklon B gas used to kill prisoners at the camp during World War II.[52]

He protested President Ronald Reagan's visit to an SS cemetery in 1985.[31] He was arrested in 1990 while protesting Kurt Waldheim's visit to the Salzburg Festival,[53] and again in 1994, when he protested in Oslo, Norway, when PLO chief Yasser Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize.[54]

Along with Rosa Sacharin of Glasgow, Scotland, Weiss sued the American Jewish Committee in New York state court in 2003 to stop the construction of a path through the Belzec extermination camp in Poland. They were concerned that mass graves at the site would be disturbed by the work.[55]

Works

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  • Weiss, Avi (2000). Haggadah for the Yom HaShoah Seder. Hackensack, NJ: Jonas Pub. ISBN 0-615-11519-5.
  • Weiss, Avi (2001). Principles of Spiritual Activism. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House. ISBN 0-88125-737-0.
  • Weiss, Avi (2001). Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House. ISBN 0-88125-719-2.
  • Weiss, Avi (2006). "Avigayil: Savior of David". In Helfgot, Nathaniel (ed.). The Yeshivat Chovevei Torah Tanakh Companion to the Book of Samuel. Teaneck, NJ: Ben Yehuda Press. ISBN 0-9769862-4-8.
  • Weiss, Avi (2014). Holistic Prayer: A Guide to Jewish Spirituality. Jerusalem: Maggid Books. ISBN 978-1-592-64334-9.
  • Weiss, Avi (2015). Open Up the Iron Door: Memoirs of a Soviet Jewry Activist. Jerusalem: The Toby Press. ISBN 978-1-592-64385-1.
  • Weiss, Avi (April 1, 2019). Journey to Open Orthodoxy. Jerusalem: Urim Publications. ISBN 978-1602803183.
  • Weiss, Avi (August 28, 2023). Torat Ahava - Loving Torah. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 978-9657023570.
  • Weiss, Avi (February 25, 2025). Haggadah Yehi Ohr. Teaneck, NJ: Ben Yehuda Press. ISBN 978-1963475678.
Articles in Sh'ma: A Journal of Jewish Responsibility

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Avi Weiss

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Avraham Haim Yosef "Avi" Weiss (born June 24, 1944) is an ordained in the Orthodox tradition, author, teacher, and activist. He serves as the founding rabbi of the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale, a congregation in , New York, and established Yeshivat Chovevei Torah in 1999 as an alternative rabbinical seminary emphasizing openness to modern scholarship and social issues while upholding observance. Weiss also co-founded Yeshivat Maharat, the first institution to ordain women as maharatot (female clergy with expertise in , , and spiritual leadership), and the International Rabbinic Fellowship as a professional association for YCT graduates. Weiss coined the term "Open Orthodoxy" to describe an approach that maintains commitment to the divine origin of and halakhic fidelity but encourages greater inclusivity, such as expanded communal roles for women and dialogue with non-Orthodox streams. His includes leadership in the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry from 1982 to 1991 and founding AMCHA – Coalition for Jewish Concerns to advocate for Jewish rights globally. Weiss has authored books on topics including (Holistic Prayer, 2014), spiritual (Spiritual Activism, 2008), and the principles of (Journey to Open Orthodoxy, 2019). Weiss's innovations, particularly the and YCT's training model, have sparked significant controversy within . Major bodies such as the have declared outside the bounds of traditional , citing deviations from established halakhic norms. Similarly, centrist Orthodox voices, including those from circles, have argued that these developments undermine core Orthodox principles, leading to non-recognition of YCT semikha by organizations like the . Despite this, Weiss maintains that his efforts strengthen by addressing contemporary challenges through rigorous and ethical commitment.

Early Life and Education

Childhood and Family Background

Avraham Haim Yosef Weiss, known as Avi Weiss, was born on June 24, 1944, in , New York. He was the son of Dr. Moshe Weiss and his wife . Weiss had a sister, Tova Reich, and a brother, Mordechai, who died at a young age when Weiss was approximately five or six years old. Weiss's paternal grandfather, Dovid Weiss, lived briefly with the family after immigrating from and died when Weiss was young; his paternal grandmother, Rifka, was known for her piety and recitation of . Weiss was named after his maternal grandfather, Avraham Haim Yosef, who had passed away before his birth. His father, Moshe, grew up in , —a town that later became the site of the —and experienced financial hardship, with his own father frequently traveling to America to send remittances in hopes of reuniting the family there. Weiss was raised in a religious Zionist that emphasized standing up for principles, which influenced his later . Despite the Zionist orientation of his home, he attended Haredi educational institutions, including schools associated with Torah Vodaas, fostering a blend of rigorous Orthodox observance and broader Jewish support systems in his early years.

Rabbinic Ordination and Academic Training

Weiss received Orthodox rabbinic ordination (semichah) from Yeshiva University's Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS) in 1968. This seminary, affiliated with Yeshiva University, has long served as a primary institution for training Modern Orthodox rabbis, emphasizing rigorous Talmudic study alongside university-level secular education. His academic training occurred primarily within Yeshiva University's ecosystem, which integrates yeshiva-style Jewish learning with formal higher education. Weiss pursued rabbinical studies at RIETS following undergraduate preparation likely at Yeshiva College, the undergraduate division of Yeshiva University, though specific degree details beyond ordination are less documented in primary sources. He later earned an M.A. in Jewish Education from Yeshiva University, enhancing his qualifications for communal leadership and teaching. This dual-track formation at positioned Weiss within the centrist Modern Orthodox establishment of the era, where he absorbed traditional halachic methodologies while engaging contemporary Jewish activism. His early training emphasized textual mastery and practical rabbinics, laying the groundwork for his later innovations in Orthodox outreach and institutional development.

Establishment of Institutions

Hebrew Institute of Riverdale

The Hebrew Institute of Riverdale, commonly known as "The Bayit," traces its origins to the Hebrew Institute of University Heights, incorporated in 1924 in the Bronx. Due to shifting demographics in the University Heights neighborhood during the late 1960s and early 1970s, the congregation relocated to Riverdale in 1971, initially operating from a boiler room in the Whitehall Building near the Henry Hudson Parkway. Rabbi Avi Weiss joined as rabbi in 1973, marking a pivotal shift that spurred significant growth and attracted a younger demographic to the . Under his leadership, the congregation purchased its current facility at 3700 in 1975, with the sanctuary opening in 1979 and key elements like the aron hakodesh and dedicated in 1987. Weiss emphasized egalitarian elements within Orthodox bounds, such as designing the to provide equal visibility and audibility between sections by 1974, reflecting an early commitment to inclusivity. The synagogue expanded physically in , adding seating capacity, a dedicated youth floor, and an elevator to enhance . By the , it had grown to serve approximately 850 families, establishing itself as one of the largest Modern Orthodox congregations in the United States and a hub for initiatives, including support for marginalized Jewish communities. Weiss served as senior rabbi until 2015, transitioning to rabbi in residence while Rabbi Steven Pruzansky assumed leadership; the institution continues to prioritize Jewish unity and outreach under Richard Langer.

Yeshivat Chovevei Torah

Yeshivat Chovevei Torah (YCT) was founded in 1999 by Rabbi Avi Weiss in the Riverdale neighborhood of , New York, as a rabbinical to train rabbis within a framework of Modern Orthodoxy that emphasizes engagement with contemporary societal realities. The institution positioned itself as an alternative to established programs like Yeshiva University's , aiming to produce clergy capable of addressing modern challenges through halakhic innovation and pastoral sensitivity. Its inaugural class began with a small cohort, expanding to ordain the first group of rabbis in June 2004. The semikha program requires a four-year for observant applicants holding a and demonstrating at least two years of prior intensive rabbinic text study, equivalent to advanced Talmudic proficiency. Core components include in-depth analysis of halakhic topics from to contemporary poskim, covering areas such as , , and , alongside practical training in teshuvah writing, life-cycle officiation, public speaking, and addressing in current ethical dilemmas. Students complete 400 hours of Clinical Pastoral Education and supervised internships, supplemented by courses in leadership, , and counseling to prepare for roles in synagogues, campuses, nonprofits, and beyond. YCT's stated mission focuses on ordaining leaders who foster "rooted in the realities of our lives," with core values promoting intellectual openness, support for the State of , and community service that bridges denominational divides. By 2025, YCT had ordained over 185 rabbis, achieving placement rates approaching 95% in professional Jewish roles worldwide, including pulpits and educational positions. However, its graduates have encountered limited acceptance in mainstream Orthodox circles, with bodies like the declining membership to those ordained solely by YCT, reflecting broader halakhic boundary disputes over the institution's doctrinal approach.

Yeshivat Maharat

Yeshivat Maharat, established in 2009 by Rabbi Avi Weiss and Sara Hurwitz in , New York, became the first to ordain women as clergy within . The institution emerged following Weiss's 2006 ordination of Hurwitz as the first woman to receive the title "Rabba" in an Orthodox context, which prompted significant backlash and led to the creation of the Maharat designation as an alternative pathway for female leadership. Located at 3700 , the yeshiva's founding reflected Weiss's vision for expanding women's roles in Orthodox communal and spiritual guidance while adhering to traditional halakhic frameworks. The program trains women through a rigorous four-year mirroring that of male rabbinical seminaries, emphasizing Talmudic study, , , , and practical leadership skills. Graduates receive semikha () as Maharanim, an denoting expertise as manhigah hilkhit (halakhic leader), yoetzet halakha (halakhic advisor), rabanit (rabbinic figure), and morah (teacher), enabling them to serve in synagogues, schools, and community organizations. By design, the invests in Orthodox women to foster dynamic Jewish engagement, with alumni leading approximately 35 communities across and beyond as of 2022. Milestones include the ordination of its inaugural class in 2013 and steady growth thereafter: 33 women by 2019, nearly 50 by 2021, and nearly 60 by 2022. In June 2025, the ordination of 25 additional women marked the 100th semikha conferred, underscoring the institution's expansion amid ongoing debates over its alignment with mainstream .

Open Orthodoxy Initiative

Conceptual Origins and Core Tenets

The conceptual origins of lie in Rabbi Avi Weiss's 1997 essay "Open Orthodoxy! A Modern Orthodox Rabbi's Creed," published in Judaism magazine, where he proposed a revitalized form of that upholds core traditional commitments while prioritizing engagement with diverse contemporary perspectives. This framework emerged amid Weiss's observation of a perceived rightward shift in Modern during the late , which he believed had diminished its earlier emphasis on synthesizing with secular knowledge and societal involvement; Open Orthodoxy sought to reclaim and expand this synthesis by focusing on inclusivity rather than boundary enforcement. At its core, Open Orthodoxy affirms the divinity of the Torah as given at Sinai (Torah mi-Sinai) and mandates strict, fervent adherence to halakha as a binding, heteronomous system derived from rabbinic tradition, rejecting any autonomy that subordinates divine law to personal preference. It distinguishes itself through "openness," defined by Weiss as an ideological willingness to acknowledge, consider, and incorporate a wide spectrum of voices—ranging from academic scholarship to non-Orthodox Jewish thought—provided they align with halakhic guidance, in contrast to more insular approaches that prioritize doctrinal uniformity. Foundational tenets include Torat Yisrael, viewing all fields of knowledge (e.g., , ) as extensions of to enrich religious understanding; Am Yisrael, emphasizing outreach to non-observant as a of chosenness, interpreted not as superiority but as a mission of unity and embrace; and the religious centrality of Medinat Yisrael (the State of Israel), regarded as the onset of redemption and warranting active support. On gender, it posits equal spiritual value between men and women, advocating halakhically permissible expansions in female roles—such as ritual participation, teaching, and leadership—while maintaining distinct preferred functions, as exemplified in initiatives like partnership minyans. Halakhic methodology in Open Orthodoxy prioritizes flexibility within rigid traditional parameters, encouraging innovative rulings to address modern exigencies without altering foundational norms, as articulated in Weiss's writings and institutional missions like Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, founded in 1999 to train rabbis attuned to these dynamics. This approach, later elaborated in Weiss's 2019 book Journey to Open Orthodoxy, underscores pluralism and hospitality toward marginalized groups (e.g., converts, LGBTQ+ individuals) as enhancements to communal life, guided by rather than external ideologies.

Doctrinal Innovations and Practices

Open Orthodoxy, as developed by Rabbi Avi Weiss, emphasizes a halakhic framework that prioritizes inclusivity and contextual flexibility while affirming the divinity of and traditional observance. A core lies in expanding women's spiritual and halakhic , grounded in interpretations of Genesis 1:27, which underscores human equality in the divine image, and complementary gender roles from Genesis 2:18. This approach rejects rigid hierarchical structures in favor of adaptive rulings by local poskim, allowing for innovations within mesorah that address contemporary needs without altering foundational precedents. Central to these practices is the through Yeshivat Maharat, founded by Weiss in alongside Rabba Sara Hurwitz, conferring the title maharat (manhigah hilkhit, rukhaniyot, toranit—halakhic, spiritual, leader). Graduates undertake rigorous Talmudic study equivalent to male rabbinical programs and serve in roles including psak (halakhic decision-making), , and public teaching, with some later adopting the title "rabba." This represents a doctrinal shift toward recognizing women's capacity for full scholarship and authority, distinct from non-Orthodox by maintaining halakhic distinctions such as women's exemption from certain time-bound commandments. Practices extend to partnership minyanim, communal prayer services where women lead permissible sections—such as and certain —while men conduct the Amidah and other elements requiring a male , aiming to enhance female participation without breaching prohibitions on women forming a or leading obligatory prayers. Proponents justify this via selective application of rabbinic precedents, viewing it as consistent with halakhic evolution rather than innovation for its own sake. Additionally, promotes women's tefillah groups for independent prayer, interpreting them as spiritually empowering without the risks of assimilation cited in traditional critiques. Doctrinally, the movement favors persuasion over authoritarian da'at torah, encouraging open discourse on issues like interdenominational relations and accommodating diverse congregants, including those navigating halakhic challenges related to or conversion, provided core observance persists. This meta-halakhic stance draws from biblical models of expansive hospitality, such as Abraham and Sarah's tent open on all sides, contrasting insular traditionalism while insisting on fidelity to mi-Sinai.

Organizational Bodies Formed

In 2008, Rabbi Avi Weiss co-founded the International Rabbinic Fellowship (IRF) with Rabbi Marc D. Angel, establishing a rabbinic organization dedicated to promoting an intellectually vibrant, compassionate, and inclusive form of . The IRF positioned itself as a forum for Orthodox rabbis to exchange ideas and make decisions free from the fear of institutional repercussions, particularly amid growing exclusion of Open Orthodox figures from mainstream bodies like the (RCA). The fellowship was linked to Weiss's broader initiatives, including support for Yeshivat Chovevei Torah graduates who faced resistance from established Modern Orthodox seminaries and rabbinic councils. Founders emphasized that the IRF was not intended to form a rival rabbinical union or directly challenge the RCA, but rather to create a supportive network for rabbis advocating halakhic innovation and greater openness. Discussions at its inaugural meetings in explored potential expansions, such as an international network of rabbinic courts, though these remained developmental ideas without formalized policy. By providing certification and communal affiliation for Open Orthodox clergy, the IRF filled a structural gap left by mainstream Orthodox rejections, enabling coordinated responses to halakhic and social issues aligned with Open Orthodoxy's tenets. As of its tenth anniversary in 2018, the organization continued to prioritize inclusivity, drawing members committed to evolving Orthodox practice while adhering to traditional observance.

Internal Developments and Challenges

In the evolution of women's leadership roles within , a significant internal challenge emerged around the nomenclature for ordained female clergy at Yeshivat Maharat. Initially, in 2009, Avi Weiss conferred the title "maharat"—an denoting a woman with expertise in halakhic, spiritual, , and rabbinic leadership—upon co-founder Sara Hurwitz. Shortly thereafter, Weiss shifted to "rabba," a feminized form of "rabbi," perceiving greater resonance, but this provoked backlash that extended into progressive Orthodox circles, prompting him to pledge in early 2010 against further such ordinations. By the institution's inaugural graduation on June 16, 2013, three women received without a prescribed title, with Weiss emphasizing that designations would be determined by graduates and their communities to prioritize practical impact over semantic disputes. This title debate persisted internally through Maharat's , comprising 21 members including 15 Orthodox , which deliberated various honorifics in 2010–2013, placing "every title...on the table" while navigating sociological barriers to women's rabbinic equivalence. Weiss advocated for organic evolution driven by students and leaders, yet the board's discussions highlighted tensions between halakhic —viewing no formal legal impediment to —and preserving communal cohesion, as some graduates later adopted "rabba," "maharat," or even "rabbi" based on context. These adjustments reflected an internal pragmatic response, allowing Maharat to sustain ordinations (over 50 by 2021) amid ongoing reflection on roles that affirm women's authority without alienating potential allies. Another internal challenge surfaced in doctrinal boundaries, exemplified by a 2016 public letter from 11 Yeshivat Chovevei Torah (YCT) graduates rejecting progressive stances endorsed by some movement leaders, such as support for partnership minyanim—services alternating male and female Torah reading roles. The signatories reaffirmed belief in the divine authorship of the Torah (Torah mi-Sinai) and opposed such minyanim, diverging from YCT's leadership, including Weiss and President Rabbi Asher Lopatin, who permitted them at institutions like the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale. This dissent underscored strains in unifying a community committed to halakhic observance while embracing inclusivity, though no formal institutional schism resulted, with YCT continuing to graduate rabbis annually. Weiss addressed such tensions by framing Open Orthodoxy's core as creating welcoming spaces without compromising Torah's divinity or halakhic fidelity, advocating decentralized authority and flexible processes like conversions to foster internal resilience against rigid boundary enforcements. These developments, including expanded women's involvement and across denominations, aimed to counter a perceived rightward shift in broader Modern since the 1990s, yet required continual internal calibration to prevent fragmentation.

Controversies and Orthodox Critiques

Ordination of Women and Title Debates

In 2009, Rabbi Avi Weiss ordained Sara Hurwitz as the first maharat, a title he coined as an for manhigah (leader), hilkhata (), rabbanit (rabbanit), ah*at (one), signifying a woman's authority in , , spiritual guidance, and community leadership within . This ordination, conducted at the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale under Weiss's leadership, marked the inception of formal clerical training for Orthodox women, though the title deliberately avoided "rabbi" to sidestep traditional objections to rabbinic . The title quickly sparked debate, as critics within mainstream argued that any form of semikha () for women blurred essential gender distinctions in , lacking historical precedent and potentially undermining synagogue roles reserved for men. In February 2010, Weiss elevated Hurwitz's title to rabba—a feminized form of —to affirm her equivalent stature, prompting backlash from Orthodox leaders who viewed it as a de facto rabbinic conferral incompatible with normative practice. By March 2010, amid mounting opposition including from the (RCA), Weiss reversed course, stating that neither he nor Yeshivat Maharat intended to grant the rabba title to future graduates, reverting to maharat to preserve institutional viability within . Yeshivat Maharat's inaugural class of three women—Ruth Gottesman, Alyssa Gray, and Julie Schonfeld—was ordained as Maharats on June 9, 2013, by Weiss and Rabbi Daniel Sperber, emphasizing practical clergy roles like yoetzet halakha (halakhic advising) and spiritual counseling rather than full rabbinic authority. Proponents, including Weiss, contended that the program addressed unmet communal needs for female expertise without violating core halakhic prohibitions, citing women's increasing Torah scholarship and the absence of explicit biblical or Talmudic bans on their leadership in non-pulpit capacities. Detractors, however, dismissed maharat as a semantic evasion, asserting that the rigorous curriculum—mirroring rabbinic semikha in Talmud, halakha, and pastoral skills—functionally equated to ordination, contravening the Orthodox consensus that rabbinic roles derive from male-only transmission of authority traceable to Moses. The debates intensified with institutional rejections: the RCA passed a 2015 resolution prohibiting members from hiring or countenancing female clergy titled rabbis or equivalents, explicitly targeting programs like Maharat. Similarly, the (OU) ruled in January 2018 against women serving in clerical positions within its affiliated synagogues, citing preservation of traditional roles amid fears of . Weiss maintained that maharat empowered women within halakhic bounds, but mainstream Orthodox bodies, prioritizing doctrinal continuity over innovation, marginalized Open Orthodox initiatives, leading to Weiss's resignation from the RCA in 2010 and broader isolation. By 2019, Yeshivat Maharat had graduated 33 women, yet their titles remained contested symbols of a rift between boundary-pushing and fidelity to received .

Rejection by Mainstream Orthodox Bodies

In November 2015, the (RCA), the largest association of modern Orthodox rabbis in the United States, adopted a resolution explicitly prohibiting the of women or the conferral of rabbinic titles such as "rabbi" or "maharat" upon them, while also barring the hiring of women in rabbinic-clerical roles that imply or equivalent to male rabbis. This measure directly addressed institutions founded by Avi Weiss, including Yeshivat Maharat, which had begun ordaining women as maharats in 2009, and reflected longstanding RCA reluctance to equate Yeshivat Chovevei Torah (YCT) semikha with traditional Orthodox rabbinic , leading Weiss and several Open Orthodox leaders to resign from the RCA in protest over its non-recognition policies. The following day, on November 2, 2015, Agudath Israel of America, a leading ultra-Orthodox rabbinic body, issued a proclamation declaring Open Orthodoxy—exemplified by Weiss's initiatives—not a legitimate form of Orthodoxy, asserting that its proponents "reject the basic tenets of our faith, particularly the authority of the Torah and mesorah [tradition]." This statement encompassed YCT and Maharat, viewing their doctrinal innovations, such as expanded roles for women and partnerships with non-Orthodox groups, as departures from halakhic norms upheld by mainstream Orthodox authorities. In February 2017, the (OU), a major modern Orthodox synagogue and kosher certification organization, released an unprecedented guidelines document condemning women in roles with rabbinic titles, permitting only non-ordained positions like educators or counselors without implications of semikha-equivalent , thereby aligning with RCA positions against Maharat-style ordinations. Additionally, Israel's Chief Rabbinate has refused to recognize YCT-ordained rabbis, as noted in rabbinic discussions and policy applications, underscoring a broader institutional boundary against Weiss's programs as outside normative Orthodoxy. These rejections collectively frame Open Orthodoxy's institutions as operating beyond accepted Orthodox parameters, prioritizing fidelity to traditional halakhic boundaries over innovative inclusivity.

Halakhic Boundary Disputes

In 2013, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate rejected the halachic validity of a conversion overseen by Rabbi , prompting a public dispute over his adherence to normative Jewish law. The rejection stemmed from testimonies by prominent American , including members of the (RCA), who expressed doubts about Weiss's commitment to "customary and acceptable Jewish Halacha," citing his establishment of Yeshivat Maharat and in clerical roles as evidence of deviation from mainstream Orthodox standards. The Rabbinate's legal advisor emphasized that mere self-identification as Orthodox does not suffice; alignment with established halakhic frameworks is required for recognition in matters like and . Weiss's supporters framed the episode as a power struggle rather than a substantive halakhic , but traditional Orthodox commentators argued it reflected deeper concerns about ideological influences compromising rigorous conversion processes, such as potential over-reliance on minority opinions to expedite outcomes. The controversy escalated when the Rabbinate initially declined to recognize Weiss's rabbinic credentials, affecting his ability to vouch for converts, before reversing the decision on , 2014, following diplomatic pressure and internal review. This u-turn was portrayed by Weiss's allies as affirming the "halachic legitimacy of Modern Orthodox rabbis," yet critics maintained that the initial scrutiny highlighted systemic issues in Weiss's approach, including a perceived laxity in upholding yuchsin (Jewish lineage) standards amid boundary-pushing innovations. Traditional voices contended that such disputes underscore a "savaging of halachic process," where novel interpretations prioritize contemporary over established precedents, potentially eroding communal trust in Orthodox conversions. Another focal point of halakhic contention involves partnership minyans, prayer services promoted within Open Orthodox circles associated with Weiss, where women lead non-obligatory sections like Pesukei D'Zimra and receive aliyot to Torah readings under a mechitza. Proponents, including some Open Orthodox rabbis, defend these as minority but viable halakhic positions derived from sources permitting female participation in de-rabbanan (rabbinic) rituals. However, mainstream Orthodox bodies, such as the Orthodox Union, have issued unequivocal rulings deeming them improper, arguing they violate the spirit of gender-separated communal prayer and undermine meta-halakhic norms against structural egalitarianism. The RCA and other poskim critique these innovations as exploiting loopholes while disregarding the broader corpus of halakhic authority, potentially fracturing Orthodox unity by normalizing practices rejected by consensus. These disputes reflect broader Orthodox critiques that Weiss's halakhic methodology favors unprecedented leniencies and egalitarian adaptations, often at the expense of traditional interpretive caution, leading to non-recognition by bodies like the RCA for certain authoritative roles. While Weiss maintains fidelity to through rigorous textual analysis, detractors from Haredi and centrist Orthodox perspectives view such efforts as incrementally eroding boundaries, with empirical outcomes like the Rabbinate's initial blacklist of Weiss alongside over a dozen U.S. rabbis illustrating institutional wariness.

Responses from Traditional Orthodox Leaders

In November 2015, the of issued a kol korei proclaiming that , including its affiliated institutions such as Chovevei Torah and Yeshivat Maharat founded by Avi Weiss, rejects the basic tenets of Orthodox faith, particularly the authority of the and its sages, rendering it outside the bounds of . The statement explicitly declared that any rabbinic granted by these entities does not confer legitimate rabbinic authority, citing repeated deviations from halakhic norms in practices like women's and partnerships with non-Orthodox groups. Earlier, in September 2013, condemned Yeshivat Maharat's graduation of women as spiritual leaders, asserting that the institution had crossed a fundamental red line and could no longer be considered Orthodox regardless of self-applied labels. , dean of , described in a 2015 analysis as a movement that purports to be Orthodox while promoting the of and , particularly through innovations challenging traditional halakhic boundaries on gender roles and rabbinic authority. He contributed a to David Rosenthal's 2016 Why Open Orthodoxy Is Not , which systematically critiques Weiss's doctrinal shifts as incompatible with normative . Rabbi Hershel Schachter, at , has repeatedly stated that falls outside Orthodox parameters, comparing its innovations—such as women's leadership titles and prayer groups promoted by Weiss—to heterodox movements that erode halakhic fidelity. In a 2017 lecture, Schachter equated the movement's trajectory with historical schisms from traditional , emphasizing its departure from established rabbinic consensus.

Activism and Public Engagements

Soviet Jewry Advocacy

Rabbi Avi Weiss emerged as a prominent activist in the movement to liberate Soviet Jews during the , initially participating in street protests in amid heightened U.S. civil rights activism that paralleled demands for Jewish emigration from the USSR. As an early leader in the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry (SSSJ), founded in to advocate for refuseniks denied exit visas, Weiss focused on grassroots mobilization, including demonstrations that pressured Soviet authorities and Western governments to address antisemitic policies and emigration barriers. His efforts contributed to broader awareness, exemplified by the 1970 Leningrad trials of Jewish activists, which spurred intensified U.S. protests and Weiss's sustained involvement in nonviolent . From 1982 to 1991, Weiss served as National Chairman of the SSSJ, directing campaigns that included rallies, lobbying U.S. policymakers, and support for individual refuseniks like , whose 1987 release followed one of the largest Soviet Jewry demonstrations in history, drawing hundreds of thousands to Under his leadership, the organization emphasized security and strategic nonviolence while maintaining fervent grassroots pressure, balancing immediate protests with long-term diplomatic engagement. Following his SSSJ tenure, Weiss became National President of AMCHA—the Coalition for Jewish Concerns—continuing advocacy until the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991 facilitated the emigration of over one million Jews. In 2015, Weiss published Open Up the Iron Door: Memoirs of a Soviet Jewry Activist, chronicling the highs and lows of the campaign, including personal encounters with refuseniks and the movement's role in eroding Soviet restrictions; proceeds supported Emergency Aid for Refuseniks aiding indigent emigrants. His activism underscored a commitment to halakhic imperatives for communal rescue, influencing subsequent Jewish advocacy models by demonstrating the efficacy of persistent, multifaceted pressure against authoritarian regimes.

Holocaust Remembrance Campaigns

Weiss initiated efforts to ritualize remembrance through the development of a Seder, modeled after the to embed memory via structured practices such as reciting testimonies, prayers, and symbolic acts including the consumption of potato peels to evoke wartime scarcity, donning yellow stars, and briefly separating children from parents to simulate selections. He authored and edited a dedicated for this observance, first piloted with readings and songs on destruction themes at the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale in 1998, and later expanded into an annual communal ritual aimed at sustaining intergenerational transmission amid dwindling survivor numbers. Complementing ritual innovation, Weiss pursued public campaigns to safeguard Holocaust sites from perceived encroachments that could undermine their commemorative purpose. In 1989, he organized demonstrations against a Carmelite adjacent to Auschwitz, arguing it intruded on the site's sanctity as a place of Jewish martyrdom. Earlier, during Austrian President Kurt Waldheim's 1987 Vatican visit—amid Waldheim's concealed Nazi-era role—Weiss led protests outside the Vatican to highlight institutional failures in confronting Holocaust complicity. These site-focused efforts extended to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where in January 2020, Weiss headed a group of U.S. rabbis protesting the of Brzezinka's ongoing services within the former SS headquarters, contending it breached a Catholic-Jewish agreement to limit Christian presence and posed an "imminent threat" to undistorted memory by normalizing religious activity amid execution grounds. He reiterated calls in 2016 for to relocate the church, emphasizing preservation of the terrain's testimonial integrity. At Belzec, where seven of his relatives perished, Weiss campaigned from 2002 against a proposed walkway, filing lawsuits asserting it would desecrate victims' ashes and bones in violation of Jewish , though the suit was later withdrawn after design modifications. Through Amcha-Coalition for Jewish Concerns, which he co-founded, these actions sought to enforce halakhic and historical boundaries, prioritizing empirical fidelity to the sites' Jewish-centered narrative over diplomatic accommodations.

Protests Against Antisemitism and Institutional Complicity

Rabbi Avi Weiss, as founder and president of AMCHA-Coalition for Jewish Concerns, has led protests targeting manifestations of and institutions enabling or tolerating it, emphasizing to expose in Jewish . In April 1994, Weiss protested outside 's auditorium during a speech by Khallid Abdul Muhammad, a former aide to known for rhetoric, holding a sign criticizing the university for providing a platform to such figures; he was subsequently assaulted by a campus security officer, leading to a 1998 jury verdict awarding him damages for unlawful battery against and the officer. Weiss organized Jewish protesters at in the early 2000s against a pro-Palestinian hosted by the , which he and AMCHA viewed as fostering antisemitic narratives under the guise of political discourse, highlighting administrative decisions that permitted events marginalizing Jewish concerns. On April 20, 2014, Weiss led a demonstration outside the Russian Residence on Mosholu Avenue in Riverdale, New York, to condemn rising , including government-backed policies and attacks on Jewish sites, accusing Russian institutions of systemic complicity through inaction and propaganda. In September 2014, ahead of the Metropolitan Opera's opening night production of , Weiss conducted prayers for , the Jewish-American murdered by Palestinian terrorists in 1985, protesting the opera's portrayal as glorifying antisemitic violence and the institution's choice to stage it despite widespread criticism from Jewish groups. Weiss has consistently linked institutional tolerance of to broader , as in his 2024 analysis tying the , 2023, attacks to unchecked hatred enabled by entities denying Jewish self-determination, urging protests against such ideological complicity.

Broader Human Rights and Political Interventions

Weiss has extended his activism to broader social justice issues, particularly racial equality in the United States. In a June 2020 statement responding to the killing of George Floyd, he affirmed support for the slogan "Black Lives Matter" as an expression of the need for justice and peace, while clarifying that it stood apart from any affiliated organization or ideology. This position aligned with his broader emphasis on equality, as noted in descriptions of his career as an advocate for social justice rooted in Orthodox values. In U.S. politics, Weiss has made targeted interventions, often linking concerns to support for . During the 2020 Democratic primary for , he publicly called for the defeat of challenger , criticizing Bowman's record of anti- rhetoric, including endorsements of the movement, while downplaying Palestinian violence. He wrote to former President highlighting these issues, seeking to influence the race. Similarly, in January 2021, ahead of Georgia's Senate runoffs, Weiss urged Jewish voters to withhold support from Rev. , faulting Warnock's comparisons of Israeli policies to segregation and his associations with anti- figures, despite Warnock's civil rights background; this drew criticism for subordinating domestic racial alliances to advocacy. Weiss's earlier political actions included a 1990 protest against during his U.S. visit, where he disrupted a event to demand Mandela condemn the PLO as terrorists and acknowledge Jewish contributions to anti-apartheid efforts; Mandela's refusal to disavow was cited as justification. These interventions underscore a pattern where Weiss applies principles selectively, prioritizing threats to or Jewish interests even in non-Jewish contexts, as evidenced by his self-description as a longtime activist for both and general .

Writings and Intellectual Contributions

Major Publications

Weiss's early halakhic work, Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups, published in 2001 by KTAV Publishing House, provides a detailed examination of the legal permissibility of women-led services within , arguing for their compatibility with traditional sources while acknowledging rabbinic reservations. The book draws on Talmudic and medieval precedents to advocate for expanded female participation in communal , reflecting Weiss's push for gender-inclusive practices short of full . In Principles of Spiritual Activism, released in 2002, Weiss outlines a framework for that integrates with proactive social engagement, emphasizing "spiritual activism" as a response to contemporary challenges like and . This was later expanded in Spiritual Activism: A Jewish Guide to and Repairing the (2008, Jewish Lights Publishing), which offers practical guidance for rabbis and lay leaders on (world repair) through halakhically grounded action, including case studies from his activism in Soviet Jewry and . Weiss's Journey to Open Orthodoxy (2019, Urim Publications), comprising 73 short essays, chronicles his intellectual evolution and defines "" as an inclusive variant of Modern Orthodoxy that prioritizes partnership, accessibility, and innovation while adhering to . The volume addresses controversies over women's and institutional boundaries, presenting them as extensions of Orthodox precedent rather than departures, though it has drawn criticism from traditionalists for overstepping communal norms.

Thematic Focus in Works

Weiss's writings emphasize the principles of , a theological framework he coined in 1997 to advocate for greater inclusivity and flexibility within halakhic observance, distinguishing it from traditional Modern Orthodoxy by prioritizing engagement with diverse Jewish voices and contemporary societal realities over rigid boundary enforcement. In Journey to Open Orthodoxy (2019), he articulates this vision through chapters on , halakhic responses to Jewish divorce inequities, , and Israel's security challenges, framing as dynamically responsive to modern ethical demands while adhering to authority. This approach critiques insularity in Orthodox communities, promoting interdenominational dialogue and interfaith relations as extensions of Jewish ethical imperatives, though Weiss maintains halakhic primacy. A recurring theme is spiritual activism, integrating (world repair) with leadership and communal responsibility, as explored in Principles of Spiritual Activism (2001) and Spiritual Activism: A Jewish Guide to Leadership and Repairing the World. Weiss posits activism not as optional but as a core halakhic duty, drawing on biblical and rabbinic sources to justify interventions in global injustices, including Soviet Jewry and protests against . His halakhic analyses, such as in Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups (2001), apply this activist lens to roles, arguing for expanded women's participation in and —e.g., women's tefillah groups—based on selective rabbinic precedents, while rejecting outright . Holocaust remembrance and historical theology feature prominently, as in Haggadah for the Yom HaShoah Seder (2000), where Weiss adapts the Passover narrative to commemorate the Shoah, linking exodus motifs to liberation from Nazi tyranny and emphasizing survivor testimonies as ongoing midrashic revelation. Later works like Haggadah Yehi Ohr (2025) extend this to Israel-centric seders, interpreting Jewish history through themes of light amid darkness and national resilience. Overall, Weiss's oeuvre reflects a commitment to halakhic evolution via first-person rabbinic precedent, often challenging mainstream Orthodox reticence on innovation, as evidenced in his forthcoming Torat Ahavah Torah commentary, which prioritizes loving engagement with text over dogmatic literalism.

Later Career and Ongoing Influence

Leadership Transitions

In 2012, Rabbi Avi Weiss announced his intention to transition the presidency of Yeshivat Chovevei Torah (YCT), the rabbinical seminary he founded in 1999, to Rabbi Asher Lopatin, who assumed the role the following year to ensure institutional continuity amid growing controversies over 's innovations. This handover marked Weiss's shift from day-to-day administrative leadership while retaining influence as founder, as Lopatin focused on broadening acceptance within Orthodox circles. On October 16, 2014, Weiss informed his congregation at the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale, where he had served as senior since 1973, that he would step down effective July 2015 after 42 years, emphasizing the decision stemmed from a desire to mentor emerging leaders rather than concerns despite prior heart issues. The transition preserved the synagogue's progressive ethos, with Weiss continuing as to guide spiritual and communal initiatives. In June 2015, Weiss resigned from the (RCA), citing its refusal to admit rabbis ordained solely by YCT as evidence of institutional resistance to his vision of expanded rabbinic roles, including for women, thereby severing formal ties with a major Modern Orthodox body. This move underscored tensions between and traditionalist factions, prompting Weiss to prioritize independent advocacy over organizational affiliation.

Recent Statements on Jewish Issues (Post-2020)

In the aftermath of the October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel, which Weiss characterized as "the greatest assault against our peoplehood since ," he emphasized that the assault targeted indiscriminately, thereby "forever shattering the canard that is not ." He urged worldwide to respond with courage, rejecting fear by openly displaying Jewish symbols like kippot and Israeli flags, and to "speak truth to power" against those justifying Hamas's actions, while expressing confidence in Israel's ultimate victory. Reflecting on the first anniversary of the attack in September 2024, Weiss described the preceding year as both "dark" due to the ongoing Gaza war and rising global , and "remarkable" for demonstrations of Jewish and (ahavat chinam), including Diaspora Jews' prayers, lobbying, and , as well as Israeli sacrifices by IDF soldiers, reservists, and hostage advocates. He highlighted acts of communal support, such as volunteers aiding troops, as exemplifying resilience amid savagery. Weiss has repeatedly linked international criticism of Israel's Gaza operations to resurgent antisemitism, arguing in August 2025 that accusations of echo ancient tropes like , despite Israel's delivery of 1.8 million tons of aid and Hamas's role in hoarding supplies and using human shields. He attributed disproportionate global outrage over Gaza—contrasted with minimal attention to crises like those facing or —to an "ancient hatred of " that renders truth irrelevant to biased audiences. Criticizing media coverage in the same period, Weiss contended that false reports maligning , such as retracted stories from outlets like and , inflict irreversible damage on Jewish and Israeli reputations, often amplified without equivalent prominence for corrections. Drawing on Talmudic caution to "be careful with your words," he cited personal experiences of misquotation, like a 1993 protest coverage, to underscore how such bias perpetuates antisemitic narratives.

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  98. https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/23/opinions/israel-gaza-antisemitism-anti-zionism-purim-weiss
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  100. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/another-kind-of-pain-calling-out-rabbi-avi-weiss/
  101. https://www.timesofisrael.com/obama-gave-a-house-candidate-his-blessing-after-reading-his-letter-to-a-rabbi/
  102. https://electronicintifada.net/blogs/michael-f-brown/avi-weiss-who-protested-mandela-seeks-defeat-jamaal-bowman
  103. https://www.tikkun.org/in-pain-calling-out-our-beloved-rabbi-avi-weiss/
  104. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/aggressive-compromise-is-a-sign-of-strength-not-weakness/
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  116. https://www.jta.org/2012/09/07/lifestyle/can-asher-lopatin-secure-yeshivat-chovevei-torahs-place-in-the-orthodox-world
  117. https://www.jta.org/2014/10/21/ny/avi-weiss-leading-modern-orthodox-rabbi-stepping-back
  118. https://forward.com/fast-forward/207457/rabbi-avi-weiss-progressive-voice-in-orthodoxy-ste/
  119. https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-protest-avi-weiss-quits-rabbinical-council-of-america/
  120. https://www.jta.org/2015/06/29/united-states/in-protest-rabbi-avi-weiss-quits-rabbinical-council-of-america
  121. https://www.jns.org/thoughts-and-observations-as-the-war-continues/
  122. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/it-has-been-a-dark-year-yet-a-remarkable-one/
  123. https://www.nydailynews.com/2025/08/10/gaza-recalls-ancient-antisemitic-tropes/
  124. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-damage-of-false-reporting-can-never-be-undone/
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