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Bowerbird
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This article is about the family of birds. For the band, see Bowerbirds (band).

Bowerbirds
Temporal range: Late Oligocene-present 26–0 Ma
Male satin bowerbird
Ptilonorhynchus violaceus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Suborder: Passeri
Infraorder: Climacterides
Family: Ptilonorhynchidae
G. R. Gray, 1841
Type genus
Ptilonorhynchus
Kuhl, 1820
Genera

Ailuroedus
Amblyornis
Archboldia
Chlamydera
Prionodura
Ptilonorhynchus
Scenopoeetes
Sericulus

Bowerbirds (/ˈbaʊ.ərbɜːrd/) make up the bird family Ptilonorhynchidae. They are renowned for their unique courtship behaviour, where males build a structure and decorate it with sticks and brightly coloured objects in an attempt to attract a mate.

The family has 23 species in eight genera.[1] These are medium to large-sized passerines, ranging from the golden bowerbird at 22 cm (8.7 in) and 70 g (2.5 oz) to the great bowerbird at 40 cm (16 in) and 230 g (8.1 oz). Their diet consists mainly of fruit but may also include insects (especially for nestlings), flowers, nectar and leaves in some species.[2] The satin[3] and spotted bowerbirds[4] are sometimes considered agricultural pests due to their habit of feeding on introduced fruit and vegetable crops and have occasionally been killed by affected orchardists.[4]

The bowerbirds have an Australo-Papuan distribution, with ten species endemic to New Guinea, eight endemic to Australia, and two found in both. Although their distribution is centered on the tropical regions of New Guinea and northern Australia, some species extend into central, western, and southeastern Australia. They occupy a range of different habitats, including rainforest, eucalyptus and acacia forest, and shrublands. While the females are unequivocally drab, in some species the males have bright golden-yellow and sometimes black markings.[5]

One group with particularly inconspicuous plumage in males as well as females, but loud meowing calls, is known as "catbirds". Note that the ptilonorhynchid catbirds, the grey catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) and black catbird (Melanoptila glabrirostris) from the Americas, and the Abyssinian catbird (Sylvia=Parophasma galinieri) from Africa, are only related by their common name; they belong to different families.

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]
A regent bowerbird arranging items in its bower.

The Ailuroedus catbirds are monogamous, with males raising chicks with their partners, but all other bowerbirds are polygynous, with the female building the nest and raising the young alone. These latter species are commonly dimorphic, with the female being drabber in color. Female bowerbirds build a nest by laying soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, on top of a loose foundation of sticks.

All Papuan bowerbirds lay one egg, while Australian species lay one to three with laying intervals of two days.[6][7] Bowerbird eggs are around twice the weight of those of most passerines of similar size[8][9] – for instance eggs of the satin bowerbird weigh around 19 g (0.67 oz) as against a calculated 10 g (0.35 oz) for a passerine weighing 150 g (5.3 oz).[5] Eggs hatch after 19 to 24 days, depending on the species[2] and are a plain cream color for catbirds and the tooth-billed bowerbird, but in other species possess brownish wavy lines similar to eggs of Australo-Papuan babblers. In accordance with their lengthy incubation periods, bowerbirds that lay more than one egg have asynchronous hatching, but siblicide has never been observed.[6]

Bowerbirds as a group have the longest life expectancy of any passerine family with significant banding studies. The two most studied species, the green catbird and satin bowerbird, have life expectancies of around eight to ten years[10] and one satin bowerbird has been known to live for twenty-six years.[11] For comparison, the common raven, the heaviest passerine species with significant banding records, has not been known to live longer than 21 years.[12]

Courtship and mating

[edit]

The most notable characteristic of bowerbirds is their extraordinarily complex courtship and mating behaviour, where males build a bower to attract mates. There are two main types of bowers. Prionodura, Amblyornis, Scenopoeetes and Archiboldia bowerbirds build so-called maypole bowers, which are constructed by placing sticks around a sapling; in the former two species these bowers have a hut-like roof.[13] Chlamydera, Sericulus and Ptilonorhynchus bowerbirds build an avenue-type bower made of two walls of vertically placed sticks.[14] Ailuroedus catbirds are the only species which do not construct either bowers or display courts.[15] In and around the bower, the male places a variety of brightly colored objects he has collected. These objects — usually different among each species — may include hundreds of shells, leaves, flowers, feathers, stones, berries, and even discarded plastic items, coins, nails, rifle shells, or pieces of glass. The males spend hours arranging this collection. Bowers within a species share a general form but do show significant variation, and the collection of objects reflects the biases of males of each species and its ability to procure items from the habitat, often stealing them from neighboring bowers. Several studies of different species have shown that colors of decorations males use on their bowers match the preferences of females.

Vogelkop bowerbird bower

In addition to the bower construction and ornamentation, male birds perform involved courtship displays to attract the female. Research suggests the male adjusts his performance based on success and female response.[16][17]

Female satin bowerbird

Mate-searching females commonly visit multiple bowers, often returning to preferred bowers several times, and watching males' elaborate courtship displays and inspecting the quality of the bower. Through this process the female reduces the set of potential mates.[18] Many females end up selecting the same male, and many under-performing males are left without copulations. Females mated with top-mating males tend to return to the male the next year and search less.[19]

Bower of a great bowerbird

It has been suggested that there is an inverse relationship between bower complexity and the brightness of plumage. There may be an evolutionary "transfer" of ornamentation in some species, from their plumage to their bowers, in order to reduce the visibility of the male and thereby its vulnerability to predation.[20] This hypothesis is not well supported because species with vastly different bower types have similar plumage. Others have suggested that the bower functioned initially as a device that benefits females by protecting them from forced copulations and thus giving them enhanced opportunity to choose males and benefits males by enhancing female willingness to visit the bower.[21] Evidence supporting this hypothesis comes from observations of Archbold's bowerbirds that have no true bower and have greatly modified their courtship so that the male is limited in his ability to mount the female without her cooperation. In tooth-billed bowerbirds that have no bowers, males may capture females out of the air and forcibly copulate with them. Once this initial function was established, bowers were then co-opted by females for other functions such as use in assessing males based on the quality of bower construction. Recent studies with robot female bowerbirds have shown that males react to female signals of discomfort during courtship by reducing the intensity of their potentially threatening courtship.[16] Young females tend to be more easily threatened by intense male courtship, and these females tend to choose males based on traits not dependent on male courtship intensity.

The high degree of effort directed at mate choice by females and the large skews in mating success directed at males with quality displays suggests that females gain important benefits from mate choice. Since males have no role in parental care and give nothing to females except sperm, it is suggested that females gain genetic benefits from their mate choice. However this has not been established, in part because of the difficulty of following offspring performance since males take seven years to reach sexual maturity. One hypothesis for the evolutionary causation of the bower building display is Hamilton and Zuk's "bright bird" hypothesis, which states that sexual ornaments are indicators of general health and heritable disease resistance.[22] Doucet and Montgomerie[23][24] determined that the male bowerbird's plumage reflectance indicates internal parasitic infection, whereas the bower quality is a measure of external parasitic infection. This would suggest that the bowerbird mating display evolved due to parasite-mediated sexual selection, although there is some controversy surrounding this conclusion.[25]

This complex mating behaviour, with its highly valued types and colors of decorations, has led some researchers[26] to regard the bowerbirds as among the most behaviorally complex species of bird. It also provides some of the most compelling evidence that the extended phenotype of a species can play a role in sexual selection and indeed, act as a powerful mechanism to shape its evolution, as seems to be the case for humans. Inspired by their seemingly extreme courtship rituals, Charles Darwin discussed both bowerbirds and birds-of-paradise in his writings.[27]

In addition, many species of bowerbird are superb vocal mimics. MacGregor's bowerbird, for example, has been observed imitating pigs, waterfalls, and human chatter. Satin bowerbirds commonly mimic other local species as part of their courtship display.

Bowerbirds have also been observed creating optical illusions in their bowers to appeal to mates. They arrange objects in the bower's court area from smallest to largest, creating a forced perspective which holds the attention of the female for longer. Males with objects arranged in a way that have a strong optical illusion are likely to have higher mating success.[28]

Taxonomy and systematics

[edit]
Two males displaying to a female masked bowerbird, Sericulus aureus, illustrated by John Gould (1804–1881)

Though bowerbirds have traditionally been regarded as closely related to the birds of paradise, recent molecular studies suggest that while both families are part of the great corvid radiation that took place in or near Sahul (Australia-New Guinea), the bowerbirds are more distant from the birds of paradise than was once thought. DNA–DNA hybridization studies placed them close to the lyrebirds;[29] however, anatomical evidence appears to contradict this placement,[30] and the true relationship remained unresolved for long. Cladistic analyses in the mid-2010s usually allied bowerbirds with the Australasian treecreepers (Climacteridae), another Sahul endemic family which is highly adapted to a woodpecker-like lifestyle (woodpeckers being absent from Sahul). This putative superfamily forms part of a large basal radiation of ancient songbirds, with the lyrebirds being part of a more ancestral branch than the bowerbirds and their DNA-DNA hybridization similarities being due to the phenetic methodology which (unlike cladistic analysis) merely assesses overall similarity without accounting for convergent evolution.

Many bowerbirds (in particular New Guinean species) are little known and even less studied. But the hypothesized relationships of 3 roughly equally distinct groups and one peculiar species inferred from courtship behaviour and external appearance are by and large confirmed by molecular phylogenetics, . Some insights from the more recent studies, however, were less expected: The Tooth-billed catbird, with its unique "stagemaker" courtship, was long suspected not to be a true catbird (genus Ailuroedus). As it turned out, this is not only correct, but in fact the Tooth-billed catbird is robustly resolved by the mtDNA data as more closely related to the "maypole"-type bower builders than to Ailuroedus, and certainly warrants separation in genus Scenopoeetes. Also, the enigmatic "maypole-builder" genus Archboldia seems to be merely a Amblyornis with unusually heavy melanin pigmentation as is often found in tropical rainforest birds. On the other hand, the "avenue-builders" also have a hypermelanic lineage, the satin bowerbird, but this seems well separable as a monotypic genus Ptilonorhynchus, as is the "maypole-building" golden bowerbird (as Prionodura). Interestingly, the widely divergent "avenue-builders" may represent the oldest living lineage, with the monogamous true catbirds, which do not build a bower and were traditionally held to be "primitive", as the most derived group among living bowerbirds – the last common ancestor of the living bowerbirds is hypothesized to have been polygynous, with sexually dimorphic plumage – cryptic greenish in the females, and probably dark with a yellow belly in the males. But overall relationships between the true catbirds, the "maypole-builders" and the "avenue-builders" were not definitely resolvable, with only a small outgroup being used and outgroup effects on intra-family relationships not being tested. Even so, it is precisely this uncertainty about inter-group relationships that strongly suggests that the "maypole"/"avenue" bowers are not one ancestral and one derived type, but evolved independent of one another, perhaps from a "clean stage"-type courtship arena which is commonly established by all bower-building species at the start of bower construction, and persists in little-altered form (just adding some remarkable leaves strewn about as decoration) in Scenopoeetes which almost certainly is the most ancient living lineage of the "maypole-builders". Among the catbirds, the white-cheeked group (A.buccoides/geislerorum/stonii) is very likely the most ancient one, which is also in line with the hypothesis that bowerbirds have become more and more drab and inconspicuous as their evolution progressed.[31]

The cladogram below showing the relationships between the genera is based on a molecular phylogenetic study by Per Ericson and collaborators that was published in 2020. The genus Archboldia was found to be embedded in the genus Amblyornis.[31]

Ptilonorhynchidae

Sericulus – 4 species

Ptilonorhynchus – satin bowerbird

Chlamydera – 5 species

Ailuroedus – 6 species: catbirds

Scenopoeetes – tooth-billed bowerbird

Prionodura – golden bowerbird

Amblyornis – 4 species + Archboldia – Archbold's bowerbird

Genera and species

[edit]

True catbirds
Genus Ailuroedus

Maypole-builders (including Tooth-billed bowerbird)
Genus Scenopoeetes

Genus Archboldia

Genus Amblyornis

Genus Prionodura

Avenue-builders
Genus Sericulus

Genus Ptilonorhynchus

Genus Chlamydera

Fossil record

[edit]

Bowerbirds have a scant fossil record that nonetheless extends to the Chattian (latest Oligocene), with the fossil species Sericuloides marynguyenae dated to 26 to 23 million years ago. It was found in Faunal Zone A deposits of the White Hunter Site at D-site Plateau of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area. S. marynguyenae was a tiny member of its family, about the same size as the golden bowerbird. It is known from the proximal end of a right carpometacarpus and the proximal end of a left tarsometatarsus. The material, though fragmentary, preserves much detail, and is overall more similar to the "avenue-builders" – in particular Chlamydera – than to the other two main groups. However, the splits between the three main groups of living bowerbirds are presumed to have occurred only in the Miocene, some time after Sericuloides lived. Thus, the fossil species may have belonged to a more basal and now entirely extinct lineage, and/or it may be considered to support the hypothesis that the "avenue-builders" are the most ancient group of bowerbirds and retain many "primitive" features in their anatomy.[32]

Other than S. marynguyenae, as of 2025 only one other certain prehistoric bowerbird species is known. This has not been named, as it is only known from the distal left ulna piece QM F57970 (AR19857), also found on the D-site Plateau of Riversleigh WHA, but in interval 3 of Faunal Zone B at the Ross Scott-Orr site, in late early Miocene (Burdigalian) sediments dated to 16.55 mya. Even though this piece of fossil bone is merely some 16 mm long, it is excellently preserved, and its features are characteristic of a smallish bowerbird the size of a black-eared catbird. Bowerbird ulnae – to the extent they have been studied – differ little between genera and species, but the Miocene fossil is unlike all living members of the family in one detail or another. If anything, it resembles the presumably more advanced groups ("maypole-builders" and true catbirds) more than the "avenue-builders" and given its age it may well have been one of the earliest members of either of the former two groups.[32] A third possible fossil bowerbird, Aeviperditus gracilis, was described in 2025 from fossils found in St Bathans, New Zealand. The species, from the Miocene, has a tarsometatarsus that is simlar in appreance to the bowerbirds, albeit more slender. Further fossils are needed to confirm it is a bowerbird, but if it is, it would show that the family once had a wider distribution.[33]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bowerbird

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Bowerbirds are a group of approximately 20 of birds in the Ptilonorhynchidae, endemic to and , renowned for the elaborate bowers constructed by males to court females. These structures, built from twigs, grasses, and other vegetation, are decorated with colorful objects such as flowers, fruits, berries, and man-made items, and sometimes painted with plant dyes or charcoal to enhance their appeal. The includes 10 exclusive to New Guinea, 8 to , and 2 found in both regions, with males exhibiting striking in many while females are typically duller for . Bowerbirds primarily inhabit rainforests and wet forests, though some adapt to drier woodlands, savannas, and even semi-arid regions, ranging from to montane elevations up to 3,000 meters. Their distribution centers on the tropical north of and , extending southward in Australia to temperate areas and northward into highland forests in New Guinea. These birds are omnivorous, feeding on fruits, , and small vertebrates, with often occurring in the forest canopy or . The most notable aspect of bowerbird biology is the sexual selection-driven bower-building behavior, where males invest significant time and energy in constructing and maintaining bowers to display to visiting females, often incorporating optical illusions like forced perspective to exaggerate size and appeal. Males may also mimic vocalizations of other species, perform dances, and engage in competitive behaviors such as stealing decorations from rivals' bowers to sabotage their displays. Females select mates based on bower quality and male performance, leading to polygynous mating systems where successful males may court multiple partners, while females alone build nests and rear young. This elaborate courtship has made bowerbirds a key model for studying the evolution of animal aesthetics and cognitive abilities in mate choice.

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification history

The family Ptilonorhynchidae was formally recognized as a distinct group by in 1854, separating bowerbirds from broader classifications based on their unique morphology and behaviors. During the , taxonomic revisions relied primarily on morphological characteristics, such as patterns, bill shape, and bower styles, leading to groupings into seven main genera for bower-building plus separate genera for non-bower-building forms like catbirds; notable changes included the split of the Flame Bowerbird into two based on differences. Molecular studies beginning in the late 1990s, including analyses, confirmed the of Ptilonorhynchidae and established its close phylogenetic relationship as the to the Australasian treecreepers (Climacteridae), resolving earlier uncertainties about its position within the oscine passerines. Recent phylogenomic research post-2020 has further refined intra-family branches, revealing of bower-building in two major lineages and supporting the separation of catbirds (genus Ailuroedus) as a basal, non-bower-building distinct from the bower-building groups. The current classification recognizes approximately 20 extant across 8 . The Ailuroedus (catbirds) is characterized by cat-like vocalizations and lack of bower , with showing cryptic for life. Amblyornis build maypole bowers and exhibit streaked in some forms. Archboldia is notable for its high-altitude distribution and simple bower types without extensive decoration. Chlamydera features with thin-walled avenue bowers and spotted in males. Prionodura includes maypole bower builders with golden or green highlights. Ptilonorhynchus, the , is represented by the , known for its glossy blue-black male and avenue bowers decorated with blue objects. Scenopoeetes lacks bowers altogether, relying on vocal and physical displays, with dentate bills as a diagnostic trait. Sericulus have yellow or golden in males and construct mat-like display areas rather than elaborate bowers.

Genera and species

The family Ptilonorhynchidae encompasses approximately 20 extant across 8 genera (with some taxonomies recognizing up to 27 via additional splits), reflecting a diverse array of forms adapted to the rainforests and woodlands of the Australo-Papuan region. Of these, 10 are endemic to , 8 are endemic to , and 2 occur in both areas, with the majority inhabiting montane and lowland tropical forests. The genera vary in key traits, such as mating systems and structural behaviors; for instance, the catbirds in Ailuroedus do not construct bowers and maintain monogamous pair bonds, in contrast to the polygynous, bower-building in other genera. Taxonomic treatments vary, particularly within Ailuroedus and Amblyornis; recent updates include the 2025 recognition of the Huon Bowerbird (Amblyornis germanus) as a distinct split from MacGregor's Bowerbird (Amblyornis macgregoriae) based on vocal and differences. Subspecies clarifications persist for Archbold's Bowerbird (Archboldia papuensis), with varieties like A. p. papuensis and A. p. grizzelda recognized in highland populations. The following list follows a standard conservative with ~20 , noting debated splits.

Genus Ailuroedus (Catbirds)

This genus includes 5-6 of catbirds ( debated, with some recognizing up to 10 based on a 2014 revision), notable for their lack of bower construction and socially monogamous mating systems, where pairs defend territories and share parental duties. Most are confined to New Guinea's rainforests, with some extending to northeastern ; they feature robust bills adapted for and , and in shades of green, black, and white with cat-like calls.
  • Ochre-breasted Catbird (Ailuroedus stonii): Endemic to the Atherton Tablelands of northeastern , .
  • White-eared Catbird (Ailuroedus buccoides): Found in lowland and montane rainforests of northern and eastern .
  • Green Catbird (Ailuroedus crassirostris): Occurs in rainforests of northeastern () and southeastern .
  • Spotted Catbird (Ailuroedus maculosus): Inhabits wet tropical forests of northeastern , , and southern (includes debated forms like Huon, Black-capped, etc., as subspecies in conservative ).
  • Black-eared Catbird (Ailuroedus melanotis): Occurs in the highlands of eastern , including the .
  • Tan-capped Catbird (Ailuroedus geislerorum): Restricted to the Adelbert and Huon Peninsula mountains of northeastern (sometimes lumped).

Genus Scenopoeetes

This monotypic features a single distinguished by its serrated bill edges, used for stripping , and avenue-style in montane habitats.

Genus Archboldia

Comprising one , this is known for its high-altitude specialization and hut-like bower structures; the exhibits subtle variations across in New Guinea's central highlands.
  • Archbold's Bowerbird (Archboldia papuensis): Restricted to the high mountains of central , above 1,500 m elevation.

Genus Amblyornis

This genus contains 4 (5 with the 2025 split), characterized by maypole-type bowers decorated with and fungi; they inhabit mid- to high-elevation forests of , with compact bodies and yellowish plumage in males.
  • Vogelkop Bowerbird (Amblyornis inornata): Endemic to the Vogelkop Peninsula and Wandammen Mountains of western .
  • MacGregor's Bowerbird (Amblyornis macgregoriae): Found in the highlands of eastern , from the Central Highlands to the Huon Peninsula.
  • Streaked Bowerbird (Amblyornis subalaris): Distributed in the western highlands of , including the .
  • Golden-fronted Bowerbird (Amblyornis flavifrons): Occurs in the Adelbert Mountains of northeastern .
  • Huon Bowerbird (Amblyornis germanus): Restricted to the Huon Peninsula mountains of eastern (recognized as distinct in 2025).

Genus Prionodura

A monotypic featuring the smallest bowerbird, known for its golden-olive and maypole bower adorned with fruits and flowers in Australian wet tropics.

Genus Sericulus

This includes 3-4 species of silky bowerbirds, recognized for their iridescent golden or flame-colored in males and avenue bowers; they are primarily Australian but with New Guinean endemics, favoring subtropical and temperate rainforests (Fire-maned sometimes separate).
  • Masked Bowerbird (Sericulus aureus): Endemic to the highlands of eastern .
  • Flame Bowerbird (Sericulus ardens): Found in the lowlands and foothills of southeastern .
  • Regent Bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus): Occurs in coastal rainforests of eastern , from southern to .
  • Fire-maned Bowerbird (Sericulus bakeri): Restricted to the Adelbert Mountains of northeastern (sometimes lumped with Flame).

Genus Ptilonorhynchus

This monotypic is iconic for its glossy blue-black plumage and elaborate avenue bowers painted with saliva and decorated with blue objects; the species ranges widely in eastern .
  • Satin Bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus): Distributed in rainforests and sclerophyll forests of eastern Australia, from northern Queensland to southeastern New South Wales.

Genus Chlamydera

Containing 5 species, this genus features crested, brown-plumaged bowerbirds that construct large avenue bowers; they are adapted to more arid and savanna woodlands, mostly in Australia, with one New Guinean species.
  • Western Bowerbird (Chlamydera guttata): Endemic to the arid interior of western and central Australia.
  • Great Bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis): Found across northern and central Australia, extending to southern New Guinea.
  • Spotted Bowerbird (Chlamydera maculata): Occurs in the semiarid woodlands of eastern and central Australia.
  • Yellow-breasted Bowerbird (Chlamydera lauterbachi): Endemic to the highlands of eastern New Guinea.
  • Fawn-breasted Bowerbird (Chlamydera cerviniventris): Distributed in the lowland savannas and woodlands of southern New Guinea and northern Australia (Cape York Peninsula).

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

The fossil record of bowerbirds (family Ptilonorhynchidae) is limited but provides key insights into their evolutionary origins in . The earliest known attributed to this family is Sericuloides marynguyenae, described from a proximal carpometacarpus discovered in late deposits (approximately 26–23 million years ago) at the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in . This specimen, smaller than most extant bowerbird , represents the oldest direct evidence of ptilonorhynchids and extends their known temporal range back by several million years compared to previous records, which were confined to late remains. Additional Miocene fossils further document early diversification within the family. A second, larger ptilonorhynchid, identified from a distal in early (circa 16 million years ago) sediments at Riversleigh, suggests morphological variation and potential during this period in . These Australian finds indicate that bowerbirds were already established in the region by the early , coinciding with the uplift of and expanding forested habitats conducive to their frugivorous and arboreal lifestyle. A notable recent discovery expands the historical distribution of bowerbirds beyond continental . In 2025, Aeviperditus gracilis was described from a distal left unearthed in (19–14 million years ago) deposits at the St Bathans site in New Zealand's region. This tiny bone, measuring about 2.9 cm and estimated to belong to a weighing around 33 grams, exhibits features akin to those of modern bowerbirds, such as a robust and curved hallux, but with a more slender build overall. Tentatively placed as a stem-group ptilonorhynchid, it implies a broader Australasian range for the lineage before in , possibly due to climatic cooling and loss during the . Collectively, these fossils demonstrate that bowerbirds originated and diversified in following the breakup of , with no records predating the . The absence of earlier fossils aligns with the broader passerine radiation in the region during the , highlighting ptilonorhynchids as a relatively ancient Australasian endemic group.

Phylogenetic relationships

The family Ptilonorhynchidae is positioned within the oscine suborder of , forming a to the Climacteridae (Australo-Papuan treecreepers), with this branching early among oscines after the lyrebirds (Menuridae) and scrub-birds (Atrichornithidae). This relationship is supported by analyses of nuclear and sequences, highlighting the Australasian origins of these basal passerine lineages. Within Ptilonorhynchidae, molecular phylogenomic data reveal a basal position for the monogamous catbirds of the genus Ailuroedus, which diverged first and lack bower-building behaviors. Sister to the catbirds are the bowerbuilders, including genera such as Amblyornis (with Archboldia nested within it), Scenopoeetes, and Prionodura, representing an intermediate branch. The derived comprises avenue bowerbuilders, encompassing Chlamydera, Ptilonorhynchus, and Sericulus, with the latter showing specialized traits like platform bowers. These relationships were reconstructed using over 12,000 nuclear loci (more than 11 million base pairs) combined with mitochondrial genomes from 20 bowerbird . The evolution of bower-building is linked to sexual selection through polygynous mating systems, which are ancestral within the family (98% posterior probability), with bowers arising independently in the maypole and avenue clades (parallel evolution with 75% probability of non-ancestral origin). This radiation is dated to the Miocene, with the most recent common ancestor of extant bowerbirds estimated at 15.0 million years ago (95% highest posterior density: 11.1–18.9 Ma), coinciding with ecological opportunities in Australo-Papuan forests. Despite these advances, gaps persist in bowerbird , including limited genomic data beyond the 2020 study and an unresolved species-level tree for all ~20 taxa, which hinders finer-scale analyses of diversification.

Physical description

Morphology and size

Bowerbirds belong to the Ptilonorhynchidae and are classified as medium to large passerines, with body lengths typically ranging from 22 cm in the smallest , such as the golden bowerbird (Prionodura newtoniana), to 40 cm in larger forms like the great bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis). Their weights vary correspondingly from about 70 g to 230 g, reflecting adaptations to diverse strategies within forested habitats. These measurements establish bowerbirds as robust birds relative to many other passerines, with overall body shapes ranging from plump and stocky to more slender builds depending on the genus and . The general body morphology features strong, sturdy legs and feet well-suited for walking and foraging on the ground, short rounded wings that support brief flights between perches or foraging sites, and broad, powerful bills adapted for extracting fruits, seeds, and from vegetation. The bill varies across species: it is typically stout and slightly hooked at the tip, but exceptions include the finer, longer bill of regent bowerbirds (Sericulus chrysocephalus) and the distinctive falcon-like bill with tooth-like serrations in the tooth-billed bowerbird (Scenopoeetes dentirostris), which aids in tearing foliage and capturing prey. These structural traits enable efficient manipulation of food sources, with the long intestine common to fruit-eating species further supporting their diet. Skeletal features include a robust cranium with an enlarged lachrymal bone near the orbit, a characteristic shared only with Australian lyrebirds (Menuridae) and potentially facilitating the forceful movements required for bower construction and maintenance. Wing morphology deviates from typical songbirds, with 11–14 secondaries (versus 9–10 in most passerines), contributing to their agile yet ground-oriented locomotion. Sexual size dimorphism is evident in several genera, notably Chlamydera, where males exceed females in overall body measurements, bill length, wingspan, and tarsus length, though this varies intraspecifically and is less pronounced or absent in others like catbirds. Variations in morphology align with ecological niches: catbirds (Ailuroedus spp.) exhibit more arboreal adaptations, including a chunkier build and bills suited for folivory in canopies, while genera like Chlamydera and Ptilonorhynchus emphasize ground-foraging with stronger tarsal structures for navigating leaf litter and open understories. These differences underscore the family's diversification across Australian and New Guinean habitats.

Plumage and sexual dimorphism

Bowerbirds display marked in plumage coloration and patterns across most species, with males typically exhibiting vibrant, iridescent hues that serve as visual signals during , while females possess more subdued tones for during nesting. In species like the (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus), adult males feature glossy, iridescent plumage that appears violet-blue to human observers but reflects strongly in the (UV) spectrum, particularly on the crown, , and wings, enhancing their appeal to females sensitive to UV light. This UV is a key male trait, correlating with health indicators such as parasite load. Females of sexually dimorphic species are generally duller, with mottled brown or olive-green feathers that provide in forested habitats. For instance, in the (Sericulus chrysocephalus), males are predominantly shiny black with striking glossy gold patches on the crown, nape, and wing tips, contrasting sharply with females' scalloped, mottled brown and olive tones. Similarly, the golden bowerbird (Prionodura newtoniana) showcases males with flame-orange and golden-yellow on the underparts, tail, crest, and nape, accented by a brown head and wings, while females are olive-green overall with less vivid yellow accents. Such dimorphism is pronounced in most of the approximately 20 bowerbird species, though it is absent in the catbirds (Ailuroedus ), where both sexes share inconspicuous, uniformly drab without bright male ornamentation. Juvenile bowerbirds of both sexes resemble females in , aiding in predator avoidance, and undergo delayed maturation. Males gradually acquire their adult colors through annual molts, often taking 4–7 years to fully develop iridescent or vivid traits; for example, young males retain green, female-like feathers until around their seventh year. This protracted development aligns with the ' polygynous , where full signals maturity and quality.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Bowerbirds (family Ptilonorhynchidae) are endemic to the Australo-Papuan biogeographic , with their entire distribution confined to and . The family's 21 recognized species (as of 2025) exhibit a pattern of , with 11 restricted exclusively to , 8 exclusive to , and 2 occurring across the trans-Torres Strait boundary between the two landmasses. In , species diversity is highest, with endemics like Archbold's bowerbird (Archboldia papuensis) confined to remote highland areas in the central and eastern parts of the island. Australian endemics, such as the great bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis), predominate in the northern and central mainland, extending into arid savanna woodlands. The two transboundary species include the fawn-breasted bowerbird (Chlamydera cerviniventris), which ranges from southern into far northern Queensland's . Additional species in , such as the masked bowerbird (Sericulus aureus), show overlap in lowland and foothill zones but remain island-exclusive. The geographic ranges of bowerbirds have shown stability since the Pleistocene, with paleontological evidence supporting a consistent Australo-Papuan presence and no documented major shifts prior to recent human influences. However, ongoing human activities, including and climate-driven habitat alterations, threaten potential range contractions, particularly for highland specialists in . Elevational distribution varies widely across the family, from sea-level coastal zones to montane extremes exceeding 3,600 m in 's central ranges, where species like Archbold's bowerbird reach up to 3,660 m—the highest recorded for any bowerbird.

Habitat preferences

Bowerbirds ( Ptilonorhynchidae) primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical across and eastern , with a strong preference for forest edges where dense vegetation provides cover and resources. Adjacent woodlands and forests also support several species, allowing them to exploit a variety of ecosystems while maintaining proximity to core rainforest areas. Microhabitat requirements emphasize areas with dense vegetation for bower construction and display sites, often near fruiting trees that sustain their foraging needs. For instance, the favors rainforest edges and wet eucalypt forests with thick sapling layers, while the spotted bowerbird selects open woodlands dominated by eucalypts and acacias, featuring shrubby understories for and bower placement. Highland species, such as Archbold's bowerbird, thrive in subalpine forests up to 3,660 m, where cooler, moist conditions prevail in mixed beech-dominated canopies. Some bowerbirds demonstrate adaptability to modified landscapes, with the extending into disturbed subtropical rainforests, woodlands, and even cultivated areas like orchards and urban gardens. In contrast, populations, particularly forest specialists, show high sensitivity to from , leading to reduced abundance in altered ecosystems. These birds overwhelmingly prefer humid tropical climates, but emerging research from 2025 indicates that prolonged droughts and extreme heat in are exacerbating population declines among tropical by disrupting availability.

Behavior

Diet and foraging

Bowerbirds (family Ptilonorhynchidae) are predominantly frugivorous, with fruits forming the bulk of their diet—typically 80–95% across —and including items such as figs, berries, drupes, and arillate fruits. For instance, in MacGregor's bowerbird (Amblyornis macgregoriae), medium to large drupes and arillate fruits comprise about 95% of intake, while the remaining portion consists of arthropods like . Similarly, the (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) relies mainly on fruits year-round, supplemented by flowers (including petals, stamens, and ), leaves, , and animal matter, primarily such as beetles and larvae. Nestlings are fed a higher proportion of protein-rich and soft fruits by adults. Their stout bills, adapted for crushing fruits and probing for invertebrates, facilitate this varied consumption. Foraging occurs primarily in forest canopies and understories, with birds employing techniques such as from foliage and ground litter, and hopping between branches to access fruits. Species in the (Ailuroedus), which do not build bowers, by searching through canopy vegetation and occasionally sallying to capture prey from surfaces or mid-air, including on the amid leaf litter. Individuals often alone, in pairs, or in small groups, moving methodically from tree to tree without defending specific food patches. Males of some , like the , may integrate with bower maintenance by collecting berries or other items. Dietary composition varies seasonally, with fruit availability peaking during wet seasons and insects becoming more prominent in dry periods or breeding times to meet elevated energy demands. In the , fruits dominate year-round, but supplement the diet heavily in summer (breeding season), while leaves are more common in winter. Bowerbirds occasionally feed on cultivated fruits such as apples.

Social structure

Bowerbirds exhibit a predominantly solitary outside the breeding season, with mature males typically maintaining individual territories and foraging independently, while females and juveniles often form loose flocks or small groups at fruiting trees. This social organization minimizes competition for resources and reduces predation risk through occasional aggregation at abundant sources. In contrast, the catbirds (genus Ailuroedus), which do not construct bowers, form stable monogamous pairs year-round that cooperate in territory defense and biparental care, representing a notable exception within the family Ptilonorhynchidae. Males of bower-building species are highly territorial around their display structures, aggressively defending areas typically spanning several hundred meters to prevent intrusions, with inter-bower distances averaging around 180-200 meters in some populations. Male-male interactions at these sites often involve intense aggression, including chases, fights, and deliberate destruction of rival bowers to sabotage competitors' displays. Females remain largely solitary, focusing on independent and nest-building away from male territories, though they may briefly join mixed-species flocks with other frugivorous birds during non-breeding periods for enhanced vigilance against predators. Daily activities center on diurnal foraging, where individuals search alone or in small parties for fruits, , and matter in the forest canopy, before roosting solitarily or in loose groups high in trees at dusk. Bowerbirds boast one of the longest lifespans among passerines, with individuals surviving up to 26 years in the wild, allowing for extended territorial tenure and social learning over decades.

Vocalizations

Bowerbirds exhibit a diverse repertoire of vocalizations that serve essential communicative roles within their social and reproductive contexts. Species-specific calls include broadband hisses and harsh screeches, often employed as signals in response to threats, while softer whistles and chatters facilitate contact and coordination among individuals. Males typically produce more elaborate vocalizations, such as complex advertisement songs and subsongs, which function primarily in territory defense and mate attraction during breeding seasons, whereas females remain relatively quieter, vocalizing mainly for or interaction with . A hallmark of bowerbird vocal behavior is their advanced abilities, where individuals imitate the calls of other or environmental sounds to enhance communication effectiveness. In the spotted bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus maculatus), males frequently mimic alarm calls of heterospecifics, such as those of the (Cracticus nigrogularis) or whistling kite (Haliastur sphenurus), particularly in stressful or alarming contexts like human disturbances near their bowers, comprising up to 78% of mimicked elements during such events. This appears linked to stress responses rather than direct predator deterrence, as mimicked sounds also include aggressive or "bully" calls, potentially amplifying perceived threats to deter intruders. The satin bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) demonstrates precise of other avian calls during , with females showing preferences for males producing highly accurate imitations, suggesting a role in . Similarly, MacGregor's bowerbird (Amblyornis macgregoriae) incorporates high-quality avian into its male subsong, including imitations of conspecific flight whirring sounds. Vocalizations in bowerbirds show acoustic adaptations influenced by habitat structure, aligning with the acoustic adaptation hypothesis that signals evolve to optimize transmission in specific environments. For instance, in the , calls in denser forest habitats feature lower frequencies and reduced modulation compared to those in open woodlands, facilitating better propagation through vegetation. These variations ensure effective long-range communication in forested ranges, where louder, harsher calls may predominate to overcome ambient noise and foliage attenuation.

Reproduction

Courtship displays

Courtship displays in bowerbirds are elaborate behavioral performances by males to attract , typically occurring at or near the male's bower structure. These displays emphasize dynamic movements and visual signals that highlight the male's physical condition and genetic quality, serving as key indicators in . In most bowerbird species, males initiate by performing a series of ritualized actions directed toward the , who positions herself within or adjacent to the bower. Common elements include wing-spreading, where males rapidly extend and flick their wings in a "buzz" or "wing-flip" motion to create visual and postural emphasis, often combined with rapid running or strutting across the bower avenue to cover distances up to 40 cm at maximum intensity. Head-bobbing accompanies these movements, with males puffing their feathers and orienting their bodies to maximize visibility of iridescent . Object tossing or waving is another prominent , in which males pick up and manipulate colorful decorations—such as items in satin bowerbirds—from the bower to present them toward the , enhancing the display's appeal through motion and color contrast. Visual cues play a central role in these performances, amplifying the male's attractiveness. In species like the (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus), males apply a made from chewed material mixed with to the bower walls, which may stain their beaks and enhance the overall blue-themed display during strutting and object presentation. Plume erection and low-body positioning, as seen in Archbold's bowerbird (Archboldia papuana), further accentuate body size and coloration, with males modulating intensity based on subtle female signals to avoid overwhelming her. High-intensity displays, such as vigorous wing extensions and rapid movements, signal male vigor but are calibrated to prevent startling the female. Females actively assess these displays by inspecting multiple males, often visiting several bowers in a to compare performances. They signal interest by crouching low, indicating tolerance, or rejection by startling—jumping backward or upward—which prompts the male to reduce intensity in subsequent interactions to prolong . Females typically reject many suitors, favoring those with consistent high-quality displays, and may return to preferred males in future breeding after initial assessment. This selective process allows females to minimize search costs while maximizing mate quality. Species variations reflect ecological and phylogenetic differences in display strategies. For instance, in the spotted bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus maculatus), males emphasize high-intensity dances with exaggerated movements to captivate females. In contrast, catbirds such as the (Ailuroedus crassirostris) forgo bower construction entirely, relying instead on aerial chases through tree canopies, where pairs engage in intense, acrobatic pursuits combined with object displays like holding colorful leaves or fruits in the beak. These adaptations highlight the diversity of non-structural tactics across the family Ptilonorhynchidae.

Bower construction

Male bowerbirds of the family Ptilonorhynchidae construct elaborate structures called bowers, which function as display arenas to attract and impress females rather than as nests. These are built by all except the monogamous catbirds of the genus Ailuroedus, which do not construct any such structures. Bowers are built exclusively by males and represent a significant investment of time and energy, often taking weeks or months to complete and maintain. Bowers fall into two main architectural types: avenue bowers and maypole bowers. Avenue bowers, constructed by species such as the (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus), consist of two parallel walls made from sticks, dry grasses, and sometimes , forming a narrow tunnel-like avenue typically 30–60 cm in length, 20–30 cm wide, and 20–25 cm high. In contrast, maypole bowers, built by species like the golden bowerbird (Prionodura newtoniana), are hut-like structures woven around one or more central poles, such as saplings or vines, often forming conical towers or platforms up to several meters in height over time, with sticks tightly aligned against a supporting . The construction process is solitary, with individual males gathering and arranging materials over extended periods, starting with a basic framework and gradually refining the structure. For avenue bowers, males first clear the site of vegetation and erect parallel walls by vertically inserting sticks and grasses, weaving them together for stability; maypole bowers begin as small arboreal cones around a central support, accumulating sticks season by season until they may transition to terrestrial forms. Decorations are added throughout, including natural items like flowers, berries, leaves, and , as well as scavenged human-made objects such as bottle caps or plastics; satin bowerbirds particularly favor blue items, which mimic their and are collected from wide areas or stolen from rival bowers. Maintenance involves ongoing repairs and enhancements to keep the bower appealing, including "painting" the walls with pigments derived from crushed fruits, , or plant material mixed with , applied using the to create a fresh, vibrant appearance. Some , like the great bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis), strategically place decorations in a size gradient across the display court—smaller objects closer to the female's viewpoint and larger ones farther away—to generate a , exaggerating the male's apparent size during displays. After the breeding season, bowers are typically abandoned, allowing natural decay, or actively dismantled by males to rebuild for the following year.

Mating and parental care

Bowerbirds exhibit diverse mating systems within the family Ptilonorhynchidae. Most , excluding the catbirds (genus Ailuroedus), are polygynous, where a single male with multiple females, and females select mates primarily based on the quality of male displays. In contrast, catbirds are monogamous, with pairs forming stable bonds for breeding. Breeding occurs annually during the rainy season, typically from late winter to early summer in their Australasian range, such as August to February for many Australian species, aligning with increased food availability. Females construct nests alone using twigs, leaves, and other vegetation, often in trees or shrubs 3–15 meters above ground. Clutch sizes range from 1 to 3 eggs, with 2 being most common across species; eggs are incubated solely by the female for 19–24 days. Hatching is asynchronous if multiple eggs are present, and nestlings remain in the nest for 20–30 days before fledging, fed primarily fruits and by the female in polygynous species. In monogamous catbirds, males assist by feeding the incubating female and nestlings, delivering about 37% of meals, with overall provisioning rates increasing with brood size. Males in polygynous species provide no , focusing instead on maintaining display sites to attract additional mates. Fledging success varies by species and environmental conditions, often low due to predation and ; for example, in the golden bowerbird (Prionodura newtoniana), only 28% of nests succeed, while in Archbold's bowerbird (Archboldia papuensis), 46% of eggs produce fledglings. Post-fledging, young remain dependent on the (or both parents in catbirds) for several weeks, learning skills before .

Conservation

Population status

The bowerbird family Ptilonorhynchidae includes about 20 species, the vast majority of which are assessed as Least Concern on the , indicating stable populations overall. Three species are classified as Near Threatened: the fire-maned bowerbird (Sericulus bakeri), restricted to a small range in with an estimated 2,500–9,999 mature individuals and a stable trend, the golden bowerbird (Prionodura newtoniana), endemic to Australia's Wet Tropics with 16,000–77,000 mature individuals and a decreasing population, and the tooth-billed bowerbird (Scenopoeetes dentirostris), found in Australian wet tropics with 19,000–460,000 mature individuals and a decreasing trend. Population estimates remain unknown for most species due to challenges in monitoring dense habitats, though many are described as locally common where present. In , the (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) is widespread and abundant in suitable eastern forests, contributing to regional stability, while populations are more fragmented with sparse data indicating no major declines except in specific cases like the golden bowerbird. BirdLife International coordinates key monitoring efforts, integrating field surveys and to inform IUCN assessments, which confirm no bowerbird faces global risk but highlight variability in local abundances across their Australasian ranges. These assessments from 2025 show ongoing stability for 17 , with targeted surveys needed for the Near Threatened taxa. Bowerbirds demonstrate notable longevity among passerines, with banded individuals of the reaching at least 21 years in the wild, supporting population resilience in low-threat environments through extended reproductive periods.

Threats and conservation efforts

Bowerbirds face significant threats from , primarily driven by logging and agricultural expansion in their core ranges across and . In , population growth has accelerated rates, with low-elevation forests particularly vulnerable to conversion for and subsistence farming, fragmenting the contiguous habitats essential for like the fire-maned bowerbird. In Australia, similar pressures in Queensland's wet tropics have reduced available upland rainforests, impacting ground-foraging and fruit-dependent bowerbirds. Climate change exacerbates these issues through increased droughts that disrupt availability, a key component of bowerbird diets, leading to reduced in frugivorous . For instance, events, including cyclones and prolonged dry periods, have caused partial crop failures in figs and other fruits, threatening mutualisms critical for like the golden bowerbird. Introduced predators, such as feral cats and rats, pose additional risks, particularly to nests and juveniles in fragmented habitats; cats have been observed near bower sites of the golden and tooth-billed bowerbirds, increasing predation pressure in Australia's wet tropics. Emerging localized threats include anthropogenic , with plastics, glass, and metal found in Great Bowerbird bowers in , potentially disrupting displays. Other localized threats include human disturbance to bowers from tourism and off-track activities in protected areas, as well as occasional conflicts where like the spotted bowerbird are viewed as horticultural pests damaging crops, though legal protections limit . Conservation efforts prioritize habitat protection and monitoring to mitigate these threats. In , key populations are safeguarded within reserves like the and Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, where ongoing bower and court surveys for species such as the golden and tooth-billed bowerbirds provide indicators of . In New Guinea's highlands, 2025 initiatives include enhanced forest connectivity assessments and community-led monitoring to track deforestation impacts on bowerbird populations, supported by organizations like . While captive breeding programs are not widespread, research into , such as modeling habitat shifts for the golden bowerbird, informs strategies. Overall, most bowerbird species maintain stable populations, but three, including the golden, fire-maned, and tooth-billed bowerbirds, require urgent intervention due to ongoing declines linked to these pressures.

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