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Bressummer
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Look up bressummer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
A bressummer, breastsummer, summer beam (somier, sommier, sommer, somer, cross-somer, summer, summier,[1] summer-tree,[2] or dorman, dormant tree) is a load-bearing beam in a timber-framed building. The word summer derived from sumpter or French sommier, "a pack horse", meaning "bearing great burden or weight". "To support a superincumbent wall", "any beast of burden", and in this way is similar to a wall plate.
The use and definition of these terms vary but generally a bressummer is a jetty sill and a summer is an interior beam supporting ceiling joists, see below:
- (UK) In the outward part of the building, and the middle floors (not in the garrets or ground floors) into which the girders are framed. In the inner parts of a building, such beams are called "summers". It is part of the timber-frame construction in the overhanging upper story in jettying.[3]
- (UK) "Horizontal beam over a fireplace opening (alternatively lintel, mantel beam), or set forward from the lower part of a building to support a jettied wall, a jetty bressummer".[4]
- (UK) "...usually the sill of the upper wall above a jetty; otherwise any beam spanning an opening and supporting a wall above."[5] also called a "jetty sill".
- (UK) Breastsummer is a beam in a wall which carries the load over a large opening derived from breast being in the front, mid-level and summer: "A horizontal, bearing beam in a building; spec. the main beam supporting the girders or joists of a floor...".[6]
- "a main piece of timber that supports a building, an architrave between two pillars"[7]
- "Breast-Summer, an architectural term for a beam employed like a lintel to support the front of a building, is a corruption of bressumer..."[8]
- (US) "Summer beam: A large timber spanning a room and supporting smaller floor joists on both sides."[9]
- (US) "Summer beam. Heavy main horizontal beam, anchored in gable foundation walls, that supports forebay beams and barn frame above."[10]
References
[edit]- ^ A Dictionary of the Old English Language
- ^ Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 1913.
- ^
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Bressummer". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
- ^ Alcock, N. W. Recording timber-framed buildings: an illustrated glossary. London: Council for British Archaeology, 1989. G4, 14h, 15b. ISBN 1872414729
- ^ Harris, Richard. Discovering Timber-Framed Buildings. 2d ed. Aylesbury: Shire Publications, 1979. p.94. ISBN 0747802157.
- ^ "Breastsummer" def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009
- ^ Bailey; Kennett, 1695
- ^ Palmer, Abram Smythe. Folk-Etymology: A Dictionary of Verbal Corruptions or Words Perverted in Form or Meaning, by False Derivation or Mistaken Analogy (1882), quoting Parker's Glossary of Architecture.
- ^ Sobon, Jack. Build a Classic Timber-Framed House: Planning & Design/Traditional Materials/Affordable Methods. Pownal, Vt.: Storey Communications, 1994. p.191.ISBN 0882668412
- ^ Ensminger, Robert F. The Pennsylvania barn: its origin, evolution, and distribution in North America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. p.392.
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Bressummer
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A bressummer, also spelled breastsummer, is a large horizontal load-bearing beam primarily used in traditional timber-framed buildings to support the weight of upper walls, floors, or structures spanning openings such as windows, doors, shop fronts, or fireplace surrounds.[1] These beams, often elongated lintels or girders, rest on the ends of supporting walls and distribute structural loads to prevent collapse over wide gaps.[2]
Historically, bressummers have been integral to vernacular architecture in regions like Britain and Europe since medieval times, particularly in multi-story timber constructions where they enabled jettied upper floors or bay windows by cantilevering outward.[1] Traditionally crafted from massive timber sections—such as oak—to withstand heavy loads, they were common in 15th- to 19th-century buildings but frequently suffered from rot due to exposure to damp masonry walls.[2] Over time, many were replaced or reinforced with steel beams or flitched with metal plates to enhance durability, reflecting evolving construction practices amid urbanization and material advancements.[2]
In modern preservation and restoration, bressummers require careful maintenance to address issues like cracking from deformation or moisture ingress, often involving structural engineering assessments to ensure the integrity of historic structures.[2] Their design emphasizes functionality, with the beam's forward projection sometimes called a "breast" element, underscoring their role in bridging architectural voids while maintaining aesthetic continuity in facades.[1]
Terminology and Definition
Definition
A bressummer is a large, horizontal load-bearing beam employed in timber-framed buildings to support the weight of walls, joists, or upper stories above spans such as fireplaces or open floor areas.[3][1] It functions primarily as a structural element that distributes these loads evenly, ensuring stability in constructions where traditional wall supports are interrupted.[4] Key characteristics of a bressummer include its construction from massive timber pieces, often placed at floor levels or directly over openings to act as a sill or plate.[1] This positioning allows it to span significant widths—typically wider than those of smaller beams—while bearing greater loads from entire wall sections rather than isolated elements.[3] In contrast to a lintel, which spans narrower door or window openings and supports only the immediate masonry or framing above, a bressummer handles broader structural demands over larger openings or spans, such as in jettied projections or hearth supports.[5][4] Mechanically, it transfers vertical loads downward to underlying posts, studs, or walls, preventing sagging or collapse across expansive unsupported regions in the frame.[3] The term, deriving from expressions denoting heavy burden-bearing, underscores this critical role, with origins in medieval timber-framing techniques.[4]Etymology
The term bressummer is an alteration of breastsummer, a compound word formed from breast—referring to the front or forward part of a wall—and summer, denoting a horizontal beam capable of bearing a heavy load, akin to a wall plate.[6] The element summer derives from Old French sommier, meaning a packhorse or beast of burden, implying the beam's role in supporting substantial weight; this ultimately traces to Late Latin sagmarius (pack-animal driver), from Greek sagmá (pack-saddle). The Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest known uses of bressummer and breastsummer in the early 17th century, often in descriptions of timber-framed structures. The term is primarily used in British English architectural contexts, with limited adoption in American usage.[7] Earlier references to similar concepts appear in medieval building contexts, though the precise terminology emerges more consistently in post-medieval English architectural texts, reflecting the evolution of vernacular carpentry language. Variant terms include breastsummer (preferred in formal or historical contexts for its explicit reference to the wall's face), summer beam (a broader synonym emphasizing load-bearing without positional detail), jetty bressummer (used specifically for beams in overhanging or jettied upper stories), and mantel beam (applied regionally, particularly over fireplaces, where it doubles as a decorative lintel).[6] These variations highlight regional and functional preferences in British and Anglo-American architectural nomenclature, with bressummer gaining prevalence in 18th- and 19th-century technical literature.Historical Development
Origins in Medieval Architecture
The bressummer, a load-bearing beam supporting walls above openings or jettied floors in timber-framed structures, first emerged in medieval European architecture during the 12th to 14th centuries, primarily in England and France as part of advancing vernacular building practices.[8] This development coincided with the widespread adoption of post-and-beam timber framing, where bressummers served as sills for projecting upper stories, enabling multi-story constructions in densely populated urban areas with constrained land availability.[8] The necessity arose from the limitations of medieval urban planning, where narrow plots required overhanging jetties to maximize habitable space without relying on later reinforcements like iron ties or concrete foundations.[9] In England, early bressummers appeared by the late 13th century, integrated into timber-framed houses and halls, as evidenced by surviving structures and contemporary building accounts.[8] A key example is Priory Place in Little Dunmow, Essex, dating to the second half of the 13th century, where bressummers supported four jettied gables in a monastic aisled hall, demonstrating their role in distributing loads from overhanging floors tied by lap-dovetail joints.[8] Another early instance is the pre-1400 core of Paycocke's House in Coggeshall, Essex, featuring a bressummer along the jettied east wall, reflecting integration with post-and-beam systems in yeoman-style dwellings.[8] These structures highlight how bressummers addressed the structural demands of jettying, allowing upper floors to project up to 2 feet beyond the ground story for added room without compromising stability.[8] In France, similar innovations took hold around the mid-13th century, driven by urban expansion in towns along trade routes.[9] Dendrochronological evidence dates a timber-framed house at 9 rue des Trois-Maries in Orléans to circa 1257, where jetty-supporting beams akin to bressummers extended upper levels over stone ground floors to optimize street-front space.[9] By the early 14th century, such features appeared in Chartres at the Cloître Notre-Dame site (circa 1316–1318), underscoring their prevalence in regional carpentry guilds' practices for multi-story merchant houses.[9] The evolution of bressummers drew from Roman and Norman traditions, transitioning from basic stone or wooden lintels to robust timber beams following the Norman Conquest of 1066, which introduced advanced joinery techniques adapted from naval carpentry.[8] French architect Henri Deneux's analysis of medieval carpentry emphasized how post-Conquest innovations in joint efficiency—such as mortise-and-tenon—enabled larger spanning bressummers, as seen in 13th-century English and French hall accounts.[8] This progression marked a shift toward more sophisticated load distribution in timber framing, laying the groundwork for widespread jettying in vernacular architecture.[10]Evolution and Regional Variations
Following the medieval period, bressummers became widespread in 16th- and 17th-century Tudor architecture in England, particularly in timber-framed houses where they served as critical load-bearing elements in jettied structures and over fireplace openings.[11] Their use persisted into the 18th-century Georgian era, though often integrated into more refined designs with carved detailing around fireplaces, as seen in surviving urban buildings in London and the North.[12] By the 19th century, the dominance of brick and stone construction, driven by the Industrial Revolution and advancements in masonry, led to a significant decline in bressummer application, as these materials offered greater fire resistance and load distribution without relying on large timbers.[13] In the United Kingdom, bressummers were primarily employed as jetty sills supporting overhanging facades in urban settings, such as the timber-framed rows in Chester and York, where they cantilevered upper stories to maximize street-level space while distributing weight from projecting joists.[14] Smaller variants appeared over inglenook fireplaces in rural and suburban homes, emphasizing their role in localized load support. In the United States, English settlers adapted bressummers as larger "summer beams" in colonial architecture from the late 17th to early 19th centuries, scaling them for expansive frontier homes and barns; these beams typically spanned rooms longitudinally on the first floor to support floor joists, as evidenced in First Period Massachusetts Bay Colony structures and Penn Plan houses in Pennsylvania's Chester County.[15][16] This adaptation reflected English influences but incorporated broader spans suited to available timber resources, such as the massive beams in 18th-century Mount Vernon outbuildings.[17] European variations diverged from the British emphasis on jetties, with analogous horizontal timbers—known as "sommier" in French contexts—integrated into half-timbered (colombage) houses in regions like Alsace and Normandy, where they often featured curved braces for added stability rather than pronounced overhangs.[18] In Germany, fachwerk construction employed similar load-bearing sills in multi-story urban dwellings, prioritizing intricate bracing patterns over cantilevering, as seen in preserved 16th- to 18th-century examples in northern cities.[19] In the 20th and 21st centuries, bressummers have become rare in new constructions due to the prevalence of steel and concrete framing, which provide superior strength and fire safety, but they are actively preserved and replicated in heritage restoration projects across the UK and US to maintain structural authenticity.[20] Occasional revivals occur in eco-friendly timber buildings, drawing on sustainable sourcing to echo historical forms while meeting modern codes.[21]Design and Construction
Materials and Sizing
Bressummers are traditionally constructed from seasoned hardwoods, with oak being the predominant choice due to its exceptional durability, resistance to rot, and natural protection against insect infestation. Elm was also commonly used, particularly in regions where it was locally abundant, offering similar strength properties suitable for load-bearing applications in timber-framed structures.[22] In contemporary restorations and new constructions mimicking historical designs, alternatives such as engineered timber products (like laminated veneer lumber) or steel beams are employed to enhance strength-to-weight ratios and accommodate modern building codes, especially where original timber is unavailable or insufficient for current loads.[2][23] The sizing of bressummers is governed by the anticipated load and span length, ensuring adequate resistance to bending, shear, and deflection. Historical examples from medieval timber-framed buildings typically feature large timber sections scaled to support substantial wall loads over wide spans. Sizing follows empirical rules to limit deflection under load.[19] Selection of materials and sizes also accounts for environmental factors, such as exposure to moisture or fire. High-quality timber is essential, characterized by straight grain and minimal knots to maximize structural integrity, with historical sourcing from local forests and modern supplies adhering to sustainable forestry certifications like FSC standards.[23][24]Installation Methods
In historical timber-framed construction, bressummers were typically hewn or sawn from large timbers directly on site and fixed using mortise-and-tenon joints to vertical posts, ensuring a secure connection that distributed loads from upper walls or floors.[8] In jettied building setups, these beams were supported on corbels or brackets projecting from the floor joists below, allowing the upper story to overhang while maintaining structural integrity through braced connections.[8] Installation often occurred after the lower walls were erected, relying on temporary scaffolding to position and secure the heavy beams, with lap-dovetail joints tying them to adjacent framing for added stability against lateral forces.[8] Modern techniques for installing bressummers emphasize prefabrication, where beams are manufactured off-site and lifted into position using cranes to minimize on-site labor and ensure precision in heritage restorations or new builds.[25] Reinforcement commonly involves hidden steel flitch plates sandwiched within the timber or metal brackets bolted to the beam ends, enhancing load-bearing capacity without altering the aesthetic.[26] Alignment is achieved using modern surveying tools to verify levelness and plumb, particularly in retrofit projects where existing structures demand exact integration.[27] Load transfer in bressummer installations occurs primarily through bearings on end posts or walls, often incorporating pad stones—dense concrete blocks that spread concentrated loads evenly to prevent localized crushing of masonry or timber.[28] Integration with floor joists is facilitated by notches cut into the beam for direct seating or by using metal joist hangers that secure joists to the underside, distributing weight across the framework and reducing shear stresses.[26] Contemporary installations must comply with standards such as Eurocode 5, which governs the design and verification of timber structures for mechanical resistance, serviceability, and durability in buildings.[29] Historical risks, including differential settling that could lead to beam failure or wall cracks, are mitigated in modern repairs through underpinning techniques that stabilize foundations and transfer loads progressively using temporary supports and jacking sequences.[30]Applications and Examples
In Jettied Buildings
In jettied buildings, the bressummer functions as the primary sill beam supporting the upper wall, positioned forward from the lower story to enable cantilevering and create an overhang that projects the upper floor outward. This structural element rests on the projecting ends of floor joists or dedicated jetty brackets, effectively distributing the weight of the overhanging wall and its contents to these supports below, thereby maintaining the integrity of the timber frame.[31][8] The use of bressummers in such constructions offered key structural benefits, particularly in densely packed urban environments. By allowing upper stories to extend beyond the footprint of the ground level—often by 2 to 3 feet—they maximized usable interior space on narrow plots without encroaching further on street width, while also sheltering the lower walls from direct rainfall and weathering. This design was especially prominent in medieval English architecture, where it enhanced both functionality and aesthetic appeal in half-timbered structures.[8][32] Notable examples include 15th-century half-timbered houses in Shrewsbury, England, such as the Abbot's House, where moulded bressummers support multi-level jetties in close-studded framing. Similarly, the Rows of Chester feature multiple jettied levels with bressummers bearing the overhanging upper floors, creating the distinctive covered walkways characteristic of the site. In France, analogous encorbellement techniques appear in Rouen, with timber-framed houses employing projecting beams to achieve similar overhangs, though the bressummer equivalent integrates with vertical posts and infill panels for stability.[33][34][35] Challenges in these buildings included the risk of sagging under prolonged load, often addressed through the incorporation of diagonal or arched braces to reinforce the frame and prevent lateral movement or deflection. In modern contexts, heritage tourism sites feature replicas of jettied structures with bressummers, such as those reconstructed at open-air museums, to preserve and demonstrate these techniques while adhering to contemporary building standards.[8][36]Over Fireplaces and Openings
Bressummers serve a critical load-bearing function over wide fireplace inglenooks, spanning openings typically 2 to 3 meters (6.5 to 10 feet) in width to support the masonry or timber structure above, thereby preventing the collapse of the smoke chamber and adjacent walls in timber-framed buildings.[37][38] These beams distribute the vertical loads from upper floors or roofs across the void created by the hearth, ensuring structural stability in vernacular architecture where inglenooks often incorporated built-in seats, ovens, and recesses for daily activities.[37] In design, bressummers over fireplaces were adapted for both utility and aesthetics, frequently crafted from oak or elm with chamfered edges or stops to enhance durability and visual appeal. Larger examples in expansive hearths might incorporate reinforcements such as iron bars or straps to handle increased spans and loads, while smaller variants functioned as lintels over doorways in framed walls, maintaining the beam's essential spanning role. Decorative carvings, including foliate motifs or cartouches, were common on exposed bressummers, adding ornamental value to the inglenook setting.[37][39] Notable historical examples include 16th-century inglenooks in Kentish farmhouses, such as Cheeseman's Green Farmhouse in Mersham, where a large timber bressummer with chamfered detailing spans the fireplace opening, supporting the upper masonry and exemplifying regional vernacular craftsmanship. In American colonial contexts, similar summer beams—synonymous with bressummers—appear in Virginia plantations.[40] In modern construction, traditional timber bressummers have largely been replaced by precast concrete lintels, which offer greater strength and fire resistance for spanning openings over fireplaces and doors, though period restorations in historic homes often reinstate original or replicated timber versions to maintain authenticity.[41][37]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bressummer