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List of copper alloys
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Example of a copper alloy object: a Neo-Sumerian foundation figure of Gudea, circa 2100 BC, made in the lost-wax cast method, overall: 17.5 x 4.5 x 7.3 cm, probably from modern-day Iraq, now in the Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. They have high resistance against corrosion. Of the large number of different types, the best known traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant addition, and brass, using zinc instead. Both of these are imprecise terms. Latten is a further term, mostly used for coins with a very high copper content. Today the term "copper alloy" tends to be substituted for all of these, especially by museums. [1]

Copper deposits are abundant in most parts of the world (globally 70 parts per million), and it has therefore always been a relatively cheap metal. By contrast, tin is relatively rare (2 parts per million), and in Europe and the Mediterranean region, even in prehistoric times, it had to be traded considerable distances and was expensive, sometimes virtually unobtainable. Zinc is even more common at 75 parts per million but is harder to extract from its ores. Bronze with the ideal percentage of tin was therefore expensive, and the proportion of tin was often reduced to save cost. The discovery and exploitation of the Bolivian tin belt in the 19th century made tin far cheaper, although forecasts for future supplies are less positive.

There are as many as 400 different copper and copper alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses, bronzes, cupronickel, copper–nickel–zinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys.

Composition

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The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements used when making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. The following table lists the principal alloying element for four of the more common types used in modern industry, along with the name for each type. Historical types, such as those that characterize the Bronze Age, are vaguer, as the mixtures were generally variable.

Classification of copper and its alloys
Family Principal alloying element UNS numbers
Copper alloys, brass Zinc (Zn) C1xxxx–C4xxxx,C66400–C69800
Phosphor bronze Tin (Sn) C5xxxx
Aluminium bronzes Aluminium (Al) C60600–C64200
Silicon bronzes Silicon (Si) C64700–C66100
Cupronickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni) C7xxxx
Mechanical properties of common copper alloys[2]
Name Nominal composition (percentages) Form and condition Yield strength (0.2% offset, ksi) Tensile strength (ksi) Elongation in 2 inches (percent) Hardness (Brinell scale) Comments
Copper (ASTM B1, B2, B3, B152, B124, R133) Cu 99.9 Annealed 10 32 45 42 Electrical equipment, roofing, screens
Cold-drawn 40 45 15 90
Cold-rolled 40 46 5 100
Gilding metal (ASTM B36) Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0 Cold-rolled 50 56 5 114 Coins, bullet jackets
Cartridge brass (ASTM B14, B19, B36, B134, B135) Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0 Cold-rolled 63 76 8 155 Good for cold-working; radiators, hardware, electrical, drawn cartridge cases.
Phosphor bronze (ASTM B103, B139, B159) Cu 89.75, Sn 10.0, P 0.25 Spring temper — 122 4 241 High fatigue-strength and spring qualities
Yellow or High brass (ASTM B36, B134, B135) Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0 Annealed 18 48 60 55 Good corrosion resistance
Cold-drawn 55 70 15 115
Cold-rolled (HT) 60 74 10 180
Manganese bronze (ASTM 138) Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2, Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn 0.3 Annealed 30 60 30 95 Forgings
Cold-drawn 50 80 20 180
Naval brass (ASTM B21) Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25, Sn 0.75 Annealed 22 56 40 90 Resistance to salt corrosion
Cold-drawn 40 65 35 150
Muntz metal (ASTM B111) Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0 Annealed 20 54 45 80 Condenser tubes
Aluminium bronze (ASTM B169 alloy A, B124, B150) Cu 92.0, Al 8.0 Annealed 25 70 60 80 —
Hard 65 105 7 210
Beryllium copper (ASTM B194, B196, B197) Cu 97.75, Be 2.0, Co or Ni 0.25 Annealed, solution-treated 32 70 45 B60 (Rockwell) Electrical, valves, pumps, oilfield tools, aerospace landing gears, robotic welding, mold making [3]
Cold-rolled 104 110 5 B81 (Rockwell)
Free-cutting brass Cu 62.0, Zn 35.5, Pb 2.5 Cold-drawn 44 70 18 B80 (Rockwell) Screws, nuts, gears, keys
Nickel silver (ASTM B122) Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0, Ni 18.0 Annealed 25 58 40 70 Hardware
Cold-rolled 70 85 4 170
Nickel silver (ASTM B149) Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5, Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0 Cast 18 35 15 55 Easy to machine; ornaments, plumbing [4]
Cupronickel (ASTM B111, B171) Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0, Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4 Annealed 22 44 45 – Condenser, salt-water pipes
Cold-drawn tube 57 60 15 –
Cupronickel Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0 Wrought – – – – Heat-exchange equipment, valves
Ounce metal[5] Copper alloy C83600 (also known as "Red brass" or "composition metal") (ASTM B62) Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb 5.0, Sn 5.0 Cast 17 37 25 60 —
Gunmetal (known as "red brass" in US) Varies Cu 80-90%, Zn <5%, Sn ~10%, +other elements@ <1%
Mechanical properties of Copper Development Association (CDA) copper alloys[6]
Family CDA Tensile strength [ksi] Yield strength [ksi] Elongation (typ.) [%] Hardness
[Brinell 10 mm-500 kg]		 Machinability [YB = 100]
Min. Typ. Min. Typ.
Red brass 833 32 10 35 35 35
836 30 37 14 17 30 50–65 84
838 29 35 12 16 25 50–60 90
Semi-red brass 844 29 34 13 15 26 50–60 90
848 25 36 12 14 30 50–60 90
Manganese bronze 862 90 95 45 48 20 170–195† 30
863 110 119 60 83 18 225† 8
865 65 71 25 28 30 130† 26
Tin bronze 903 40 45 18 21 30 60–75 30
905 40 45 18 22 25 75 30
907 35 44 18 22 20 80 20
Leaded tin bronze 922 34 40 16 20 30 60–72 42
923 36 40 16 20 25 60–75 42
926 40 44 18 20 30 65–80 40
927 35 42 21 20 77 45
High-leaded tin bronze 932 30 35 14 18 20 60–70 70
934 25 32 16 20 55–65 70
935 25 32 12 16 30 55–65 70
936 33 30 16 21 15 79-83 80
937 25 35 12 18 20 55–70 80
938 25 30 14 16 18 50–60 80
943 21 27 13 10 42–55 80
Aluminium bronze 952 65 80 25 27 35 110–140† 50
953 65 75 25 27 25 140† 55
954 75 85 30 35 18 140–170† 60
955 90 100 40 44 12 180–200† 50
958 85 95 35 38 25 150-170† 50
Silicon bronze 878 80 83 30 37 29 115 40
† Brinell scale with 3000 kg load
Comparison of copper alloy standards[6]
Family CDA ASTM SAE SAE superseded Federal Military
Red brass 833
836 B145-836 836 40 QQ-C-390 (B5) C-2229 Gr2
838 B145-838 838 QQ-C-390 (B4)
Semi-red brass 844 B145-844 QQ-C-390 (B2)
848 B145-848 QQ-C-390 (B1)
Manganese bronze 862 B147-862 862 430A QQ-C-390 (C4) C-2229 Gr9
863 B147-863 863 430B QQ-C-390 (C7) C-2229 Gr8
865 B147-865 865 43 QQ-C-390 (C3) C-2229 Gr7
Tin bronze 903 B143-903 903 620 QQ-C-390 (D5) C-2229 Gr1
905 B143-905 905 62 QQ-C-390 (D6)
907 907 65
Leaded tin bronze 922 B143-922 922 622 QQ-C-390 (D4) B-16541
923 B143-923 923 621 QQ-C-390 (D3) C-15345 Gr10
926 926
927 927 63
High-leaded tin bronze 932 B144-932 932 660 QQ-C-390 (E7) C-15345 Gr12
934 QQ-C-390 (E8) C-22229 Gr3
935 B144-935 935 66 QQ-C-390 (E9)
937 B144-937 937 64 QQ-C-390 (E10)
938 B144-938 938 67 QQ-C-390 (E6)
943 B144-943 943 QQ-C-390 (E1)
Aluminium bronze 952 B148-952 952 68A QQ-C-390 (G6) C-22229 Gr5
953 B148-953 953 68B QQ-C-390 (G7)
954 B148-954 954 QQ-C-390 (G5) C-15345 Gr13
955 B148-955 955 QQ-C-390 (G3) C-22229 Gr8
958 QQ-C-390 (G8)
Silicon bronze 878 B30 878

The following table outlines the chemical composition of various grades of copper alloys.

Chemical composition of copper alloys[6][7]
Family CDA AMS UNS Cu [%] Sn [%] Pb [%] Zn [%] Ni [%] Fe [%] Al [%] Other [%]
Red brass 833 C83300 93 1.5 1.5 4
C83400[8] 90 10
836 4855B C83600 85 5 5 5
838 C83800 83 4 6 7
Semi-red brass 844 C84400 81 3 7 9
845 C84500 78 3 7 12
848 C84800 76 3 6 15
Manganese bronze C86100[9] 67 0.5 21 3 5 Mn 4
862† C86200 64 26 3 4 Mn 3
863† 4862B C86300 63 25 3 6 Mn 3
865 4860A C86500 58 0.5 39.5 1 1 Mn 0.25
Tin bronze 903 C90300 88 8 4
905 4845D C90500 88 10 0.3 max 2
907 C90700 89 11 0.5 max 0.5 max
Leaded tin bronze 922 C92200 88 6 1.5 4.5
923 C92300 87 8 1 max 4
926 4846A C92600 87 10 1 2
927 C92700 88 10 2 0.7 max
High-leaded tin bronze 932 C93200 83 7 7 3
934 C93400 84 8 8 0.7 max
935 C93500 85 5 9 1 0.5 max
937 4842A C93700 80 10 10 0.7 max
938 C93800 78 7 15 0.75 max
943 4840A C94300 70 5 25 0.7 max
Aluminium bronze 952 C95200 88 3 9
953 C95200 89 1 10
954 4870B
4872B		 C95400 85 4 11
C95410[10] 85 4 11 Ni 2
955 C95500 81 4 4 11
C95600[11] 91 7 Si 2
C95700[12] 75 2 3 8 Mn 12
958 C95800 81 5 4 9 Mn 1
Silicon bronze C87200[13] 89 Si 4
C87400[14] 83 14 Si 3
C87500[15] 82 14 Si 4
C87600[16] 90 5.5 Si 4.5
878 C87800[17] 80 14 Si 4
C87900[18] 65 34 Si 1
† Chemical composition may vary to yield mechanical properties

Brasses

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Binary Cu Si phase diagram, the base phase diagram for silicon bronzes generated using NIMS Open databases https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-ehttps://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-elem/cusi/cusi.htm - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/
Binary Cu Si phase diagram, the base phase diagram for silicon bronzes
Binary Cu Al phase diagram, the base phase diagram for aluminium bronzes
Binary Cu Al phase diagram, the base phase diagram for aluminium bronzes, generated using NIMS Open databases https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/al-elem/alcu/alcu.htm - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/
Binary Cu Sn phase diagram
Binary Cu Sn phase diagram, the base phase diagram for bronzes, generated using NIMS Open databases https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-elem/cusn/cusn.htm - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/
Cu Zn binary phase diagram. Base phase diagram for brasses
Binary Cu Zn phase diagram, the base phase diagram for brasses, generated using NIMS Open database https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-elem/cu_index.htm  Cu-Zn - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/
Main article: Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color. The zinc content can vary between few % to about 40%; as long as it is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease the corrosion resistance of copper.

Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy (dezincification), leaving behind a spongy copper structure.

Bronzes

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Main article: Bronze

A bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also alumnium and silicon.

Precious metal alloys

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Copper is often alloyed with precious metals like gold (Au) and silver (Ag).

Name Cu [%] Au [%] Ag [%] Other [%]
Auricupride † †
Ashtadhatu † † † Fe†, Hg†, Sn†, Zn†
Billon † † Hg†
Chinese silver 58 2 17.5 Zn, 11.5 Ni,
Corinthian bronze † † †
CuSil 28 72
Dymalloy 20 80 C (type I diamond)
Electrum, Green gold 6-23 75-80 0-15 0-4 Cd
Grey gold † † Mn†
Guanín 25 56 18
Hepatizon † trace trace
Niello † † Pb sulfides†
Panchaloha † † † Fe†, Sn†, Pb†, Zn†,
Rose, red, and pink gold 20-50 50-75 0-5
Spangold 18-19 76 5-6 Al
Shakudō 90-96 4-10
Shibuichi 40-77 0-1 23-60
Tibetan silver † † Ni†, Sn†
Tumbaga 3-97 3-97
White gold † † Ni†, Zn†

† amount unspecified

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

List of copper alloys

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Copper alloys are metallic materials consisting primarily of copper alloyed with elements such as , tin, , aluminum, or others to enhance properties including electrical and thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, strength, and . These alloys are broadly classified into wrought alloys, which are shaped through mechanical working processes like rolling or drawing, and alloys, which are produced by pouring molten metal into molds. The (UNS), a standard designation managed by and , assigns five-digit codes prefixed by "C" to identify compositions, with wrought alloys ranging from C10000 to C79999 and cast alloys from C80000 to C99999. Major families of copper alloys include coppers (≥99.3% ), high-copper alloys (96–99.3% for wrought, >94% for cast), brasses (primarily -zinc with subtypes like alpha, alpha-beta, leaded, and tin varieties), bronzes (-tin, , aluminum, or silicon-based for strength and wear resistance), cupronickels (- for marine applications), and nickel silvers (--zinc for decorative and spring uses). Approximately 370 commercial compositions exist, standardized by organizations like the Development Association (CDA) and covered under ASTM specifications for various forms such as wire, rod, and castings. These alloys are essential in industries including , , marine hardware, and due to their versatile mechanical properties, which can be further optimized through , , or .

Overview and Classification

General Composition

Copper alloys primarily consist of (Cu) combined with one or more alloying elements to achieve desired properties. Coppers contain ≥99.3% Cu, while high-copper alloys have 96–99.3% Cu (wrought) or >94% Cu (cast). Brasses are -zinc alloys with 3–40% Zn, often including subtypes like alpha (up to 37% Zn) and alpha-beta (38–45% Zn). Bronzes include -tin alloys (1–12% Sn), phosphor bronzes (Cu-Sn-P), aluminum bronzes (5–12% Al with Fe, Ni), and silicon bronzes (3% Si). Cupronickels contain 5–30% Ni with Fe and Mn for resistance, and nickel silvers are Cu-Ni-Zn alloys (10–25% Ni, 5–30% Zn) without silver. These compositions are standardized to ensure consistency in properties like strength, conductivity, and .

Designation Systems

Copper alloys are designated using standardized systems to ensure consistent identification, facilitate , and support material specifications across industries. These systems categorize alloys based on composition, processing, and properties, replacing earlier inconsistent trade names that varied by manufacturer and region. The primary system in is the (UNS), developed jointly by and and published as a recommended practice in 1974 to unify disparate alloy numbering. Under UNS, copper and copper alloys are assigned five-digit numbers prefixed by "C," ranging from C10000 to C79999 for wrought alloys and C80000 to C99999 for cast alloys. Subgroups within the wrought range delineate alloy families by major alloying elements: C1xxx for coppers (e.g., C10100 for oxygen-free electronic copper), C2xxx for binary copper-zinc alloys (brasses), C3xxx for leaded copper-zinc alloys, C4xxx for copper-tin alloys (bronzes), C6xxx for copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes), and C7xxx for copper-nickel-zinc (nickel silvers) and copper-nickel (cupronickels) alloys. This compositional grouping allows quick identification of alloy types without listing full chemical breakdowns. In , the EN numbering system, standardized by the (CEN), uses a six-character alphanumeric code starting with "Cu" for chemical symbols or "CW" for wrought and "CC" for cast alloys, followed by numbers indicating composition and a letter for the alloy group. For instance, brasses are denoted as CuZn (e.g., CuZn37 for a 63% copper-37% alloy, equivalent to ), while leaded variants include "Pb" (e.g., CuZn39Pb3 as CW614N). This system, based on ISO/TR 7003 for unified formats, promotes compatibility with computer systems and replaced national standards like those in (DIN) and the (BS) by the early . ASTM International provides additional designations through its B-series specifications, which focus on product forms and tempers rather than broad alloy families. Examples include B1 for hard-drawn copper wire, B3 for annealed copper wire, and B16 for free-cutting brass rod and shapes (covering UNS C36000). These are often used alongside UNS for procurement and testing. ISO classifications emphasize compositional nomenclature under standards like ISO 197-1, dividing materials into unrefined copper, refined copper, and copper alloys with specific alloying limits (e.g., alloys with less than 5% other elements as "copper alloys," and higher as "various copper alloys"). This system supports global harmonization but is more descriptive than numeric. Generic naming conventions persist alongside formal systems, with "" typically reserved for copper-zinc alloys and "" for copper-tin or other copper alloys excluding significant zinc, often qualified by additives like "leaded" (for improved ) or "phosphor" (for deoxidized tin bronzes). These terms originated in historical but are now aligned with and EN groups for precision. The evolution from ad hoc trade names—such as "" for a specific —to structured systems began in the mid-20th century amid growing industrialization, culminating in the to address inconsistencies across ASTM, SAE, and other bodies. Cross-referencing is common; for example, the free-cutting C36000 (60% , 3% lead, balance ) corresponds to EN CW603N (CuZn36Pb3).

Coppers and High-Copper Alloys

Pure Coppers

Pure coppers are defined as unalloyed or minimally processed materials containing at least 99.3% by weight, with total impurities limited to less than 0.7%, and are designated under the (UNS) as C10100 through C15999. These materials prioritize maximum purity to achieve superior performance in applications requiring high conductivity, distinguishing them from high-copper alloys that incorporate intentional additions exceeding 0.7% of other elements for enhanced strength or other properties. The primary types of pure coppers include oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC) copper, designated UNS C10100, which achieves 99.99% copper purity with oxygen content below 0.0005%. Electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) copper, UNS C11000, contains approximately 99.9% copper and includes about 0.04% oxygen as a residual from refining, providing a balance of conductivity and workability. Phosphor-deoxidized (DHP) copper, UNS C12200, features 99.9% copper with 0.015-0.040% phosphorus added during processing to remove oxygen and prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Another variant is zirconium copper, UNS C15000, with 99.6-99.92% copper and 0.08-0.3% zirconium to improve softening resistance, weldability, and strength at elevated temperatures while retaining high conductivity (85-95% IACS). OFHC and ETP coppers exhibit the highest levels of electrical conductivity, rated at 100-101% of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), along with excellent thermal conductivity exceeding 390 W/m·K, while DHP and zirconium coppers have somewhat lower values at ~85% IACS and ~340 W/m·K due to alloying elements. They also demonstrate outstanding ductility, allowing extensive cold working without fracture, and superior corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing environments such as water or neutral atmospheres. Common forms of pure coppers include wrought products like sheets, strips, rods, and wires, as well as cast shapes for specific uses; they are widely applied in , busbars, heat exchangers, and electronic components where minimal resistance and reliable performance are essential. copper is particularly used in components and RF shielding due to its formability and thermal stability. Production of pure coppers begins with electrolytic refining of anodes in electrolytes, yielding cathodes of 99.95-99.99% purity by selectively depositing copper while impurities remain in solution or form . To mitigate embrittlement risks from oxygen absorption during and , deoxidation processes are employed: OFHC uses or inert atmospheres to exclude oxygen entirely, while DHP incorporates as a , ensuring the material retains its and conductivity during fabrication. additions in C15000 are introduced during to refine without deoxidation needs.

Alloyed High-Copper Variants

Alloyed high-copper variants, designated under the (UNS) as C16000 to C19999, are -based materials containing more than 96% by weight, with total alloying elements limited to 2-4% to preserve exceptional electrical and conductivity while enhancing mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, and resistance to fatigue and softening at elevated temperatures. These alloys differ from pure by incorporating deliberate minor additions of elements like , , or , which enable and other heat treatments to achieve tailored performance without significantly compromising the base metal's inherent advantages. Unlike higher-alloyed systems, these variants prioritize conductivity levels often exceeding 80% of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) in annealed states, making them suitable for demanding electrical and applications. Prominent examples include alloys in the UNS C17000-C17500 series, which typically contain 0.2-2.0% (with higher-conductivity grades at 0.2-0.7% and high-strength grades at 1.6-2.0%), balanced by and minor or for improved stability. These provide remarkable springiness and non-magnetic behavior due to the fine precipitation of beryllium-rich phases during aging. - , designated UNS C18100, features 0.4-1.2% chromium and 0.08-0.25% zirconium, enhancing resistance to recrystallization and creep at high temperatures while maintaining near-pure conductivity. These alloys exhibit electrical conductivities ranging from 40-90% IACS, depending on composition and temper, with high-strength variants like achieving 20-60% IACS post-hardening and conductivity-optimized ones like chromium-zirconium copper reaching 80-90% IACS. Tensile strengths can exceed 1200 MPa after , particularly in , which also demonstrates superior fatigue endurance (up to 10^7 cycles at 400 MPa stress) and resistance in humid or saline environments due to the protective oxide layers formed by alloying elements. Chromium-zirconium variants offer creep resistance up to 500°C, retaining over 80% of room-temperature strength. Common applications leverage these balanced properties: serves in high-reliability electrical connectors, , and precision springs in and , where its non-sparking nature and dimensional stability under repeated flexing are critical. Chromium-zirconium copper is favored for resistance electrodes and high-temperature bus bars in automotive and power distribution systems, benefiting from its wear resistance and thermal stability. Heat treatment is essential for optimizing these alloys, with primarily relying on (age) hardening: a solution anneal at 780-830°C followed by rapid , then aging at 300-350°C for 2-3 hours to precipitate coherent phases that boost strength without . Chromium-zirconium coppers undergo similar solution annealing at 900-980°C and aging at 450-550°C, though they may include for additional refinement, ensuring peak properties like 500-800 MPa yield strength. These processes, standardized by bodies like ASTM B768 for , allow precise control over microstructure for specific end-use demands.
AlloyUNS DesignationKey Alloying ElementsTypical Conductivity (% IACS)Max Tensile Strength (MPa)Primary Benefit
C17000-C175000.2-2.0% Be20-60 (hardened); 50-60 (high-conductivity)Up to 1400Springiness and fatigue resistance
Chromium-Zirconium CopperC181000.4-1.2% Cr, 0.08-0.25% Zr80-90400-600High-temperature strength

Copper-Zinc Alloys

Wrought Brasses

Wrought brasses are deformable - alloys in the C20000 to C49999 series, typically containing 20-40% , that are processed through rolling, , or to achieve desired shapes and properties. These alloys exhibit two primary microstructures: alpha phase, which is single-phase and offers high for cold forming, and alpha-beta phase, which is two-phase and provides greater strength but reduced cold formability, suitable for . The content influences the phase , with lower levels (up to about 35% Zn) favoring alpha for excellent and formability, while higher levels (around 40% Zn) promote alpha-beta for enhanced rigidity. Key examples include cartridge brass (UNS C26000), with approximately 30% zinc (68.5-71.5% Cu, remainder Zn), renowned for its deep drawing capabilities due to superior ductility in the alpha structure. Muntz metal (UNS C28000), containing 40% zinc (59-63% Cu, remainder Zn), features an alpha-beta structure that excels in hot working applications requiring moderate strength and corrosion resistance. Naval brass (UNS C46400), with 39% zinc plus 1% tin (59-62% Cu, 0.5-1.0% Sn, remainder Zn), enhances corrosion resistance through the tin addition, making it ideal for marine environments. Admiralty brass (UNS C44300), incorporating 28% zinc, 1% tin, and trace arsenic (70-73% Cu, 0.9-1.2% Sn, remainder Zn), provides arsenical inhibition against dezincification in seawater. These alloys generally offer good tensile strength ranging from 300 to 500 MPa in various tempers, balancing durability with workability, alongside moderate electrical conductivity of about 28% IACS, which supports non-critical electrical uses. Inhibited variants, such as those with tin or , exhibit strong resistance to dezincification, ensuring longevity in corrosive settings like aqueous or atmospheric exposure. is favorable, particularly in alpha alloys, rated around 30-40 on standard scales, while formability allows complex shaping without cracking. Processing involves annealing at 800-1400°F to restore ductility after cold working, which increases strength through strain hardening, or hot working at 1150-1550°F for alpha-beta alloys to leverage their hot formability. Applications span ammunition casings and radiator components from cartridge brass, plumbing fittings and architectural trim from Muntz metal, and marine hardware like propellers from naval brass. Admiralty brass finds use in condenser and heat exchanger tubes for its seawater compatibility.
Alloy (UNS)Composition (wt%)MicrostructureKey Property Highlights
C26000 (Cartridge Brass)68.5-71.5 Cu, rem. ZnAlphaHigh (up to 65% elongation), tensile strength 300-540 MPa
C28000 ()59-63 Cu, rem. ZnAlpha-BetaHot formability, tensile strength 370-510 MPa, 28% IACS conductivity
C46400 (Naval Brass)59-62 Cu, 0.5-1.0 Sn, rem. ZnAlpha-BetaSeawater corrosion resistance, tensile strength 380-600 MPa
C44300 (Admiralty Brass)70-73 Cu, 0.9-1.2 Sn, rem. Zn (+ trace As)AlphaDezincification resistance, thermal conductivity 64 Btu/sq ft/hr/°F

Cast Brasses

Cast brasses are - alloys in the C83300 to C89999 series, typically containing 5-40% , often with lead, tin, or other additions for enhanced castability, , and resistance. These alloys are produced by pouring molten metal into molds to form intricate shapes and feature cast microstructures, including phases, or eutectoid structures influenced by content, cooling rate, and alloying elements. Lower levels (5-15%) produce red brasses with high for superior resistance, while higher (20-40%) results in yellow brasses offering cost-effectiveness and strength. Lead additions (1-8%) improve machinability by forming chips that break easily, and tin (up to 6%) enhances strength and wear resistance without compromising castability. Key examples include leaded red brass (UNS C83600), with 84-86% Cu, 4-6% Zn, 4-6% Pb, and 4-6% Sn, noted for its good bearing qualities and resistance to corrosion in non-oxidizing environments. Leaded semi-red brass (UNS C84400), containing 78-82% Cu, 7-10% Zn, 6-8% Pb, and 2.3-3.5% Sn, balances machinability and moderate strength for hardware applications. Leaded yellow brass (UNS C85200), with 70-74% Cu, 20-27% Zn, 1.5-3.8% Pb, and 0.7-2.0% Sn, provides excellent fluidity for complex castings and a pleasing yellow color. These alloys generally exhibit tensile strengths of 200-300 MPa, with elongations of 15-30% and Brinell hardness around 60-80, alongside electrical conductivity of 15-25% IACS. They offer good corrosion resistance in freshwater and atmospheric conditions, with machinability ratings of 80-90, making them suitable for precision . Processing involves at 1750-2000°F and into , permanent, or centrifugal molds, followed by annealing if needed to relieve stresses. Applications include fixtures, valves, components, ornamental hardware, and bearings, capitalizing on their ability to produce detailed castings with good surface finish.
Alloy (UNS)Composition (wt%)MicrostructureKey Property Highlights
C83600 (Leaded Red Brass)84-86 Cu, 4-6 Zn, 4-6 Pb, 4-6 SnCast alphaCorrosion resistance, tensile strength 240-310 MPa (typical), machinability 84
C84400 (Leaded Semi-Red Brass)78-82 Cu, 7-10 Zn, 6-8 Pb, 2.3-3.5 SnCast multiphaseHigh machinability 90, tensile strength 200-235 MPa, elongation 18-26%
C85200 (Leaded Yellow Brass)70-74 Cu, 20-27 Zn, 1.5-3.8 Pb, 0.7-2.0 SnCast alpha-betaGood castability, tensile strength 240-260 MPa (typical), machinability 80

Copper-Tin Alloys

Phosphor Bronzes

Phosphor bronzes are a family of copper-tin alloys that incorporate phosphorus as a deoxidizing agent and strength enhancer, classified under the Unified Numbering System (UNS) as C5xxxx series alloys. These materials typically contain 0.5% to 11% tin and 0.01% to 0.35% phosphorus, with the remainder being copper, enabling both wrought and cast forms suitable for demanding mechanical applications. The addition of phosphorus not only facilitates deoxidation during melting to prevent porosity but also promotes grain refinement for improved castability and forms hard intermetallic compounds that enhance wear resistance and stiffness. These alloys exhibit high strength, often reaching up to 600 MPa in certain tempers, alongside excellent resistance and moderate electrical conductivity ranging from 13% to 40% of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). Their good cold formability allows for extensive shaping through drawing, rolling, or bending, while is primarily achieved via to develop spring-like properties, with annealing at 900–1250°F for stress relief. Compared to base tin bronzes, phosphor variants offer superior resistance and mechanical durability due to the phosphorus-induced microstructure. Key phosphor bronze alloys include Grade A (UNS C51000), which features approximately 5% tin for high-strength springs; Grade C (UNS C52100), with about 8% tin suited for bushings and ; and the leaded variant (UNS C54400), containing 3–4% lead alongside 3.5–4.5% tin to improve . The table below summarizes their nominal compositions and representative properties in a common H02 temper for flat products:
UNS DesignationNominal Composition (wt%)Tensile Strength (ksi)Yield Strength (ksi)Elongation (%)Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)
C51000 (Grade A)Cu rem., Sn 4.2–5.8, P 0.03–0.3566542415
C52100 (Grade C)Cu rem., Sn 7.0–9.0, P 0.03–0.3577643413
C54400 (Leaded)Cu rem., Sn 3.5–4.5, Pb 3.0–4.0, P 0.01–0.5058402419
These alloys find primary use in electrical contacts, diaphragms, and bearings where high resistance and endurance are critical, such as in bridge bearing plates, fuse clips, and precision springs. The leaded C54400 variant is particularly valued in machined components like bushings and gears for its balance of strength and free-machining characteristics. Overall, phosphor bronzes excel in high-wear environments requiring reliable performance under cyclic loading.

Leaded Tin Bronzes

Leaded tin bronzes are a family of cast -tin alloys with added lead to improve and provide , classified under the (UNS) as C92000 to C94500 series alloys. These materials typically contain 4% to 20% tin, 5% to 25% lead, with the remainder primarily , often including , iron, or for enhanced properties. The lead exists as discrete particles that act as a solid , aiding in chip breaking during and improving embeddability in bearing applications to trap dirt and abrasives. may be present in small amounts (up to 0.15%) as a deoxidizer in some alloys. These alloys offer good strength, moderate , excellent and resistance, and high , making them suitable for heavy-duty components. Typical mechanical properties in the sand-cast condition include tensile strength of 30-50 (207-345 MPa), yield strength of 14-25 (97-172 MPa), and elongation of 10-30%. They are not typically heat treated but can be annealed for stress relief. Key leaded tin bronze alloys include C92200 (also known as naval brass or gun metal), with 6% tin and 6% lead for and applications; and C93200 (bearing , SAE 660), with 7% tin and 7% lead for high-load bearings and bushings. The table below summarizes their nominal compositions and typical properties in the sand-cast condition:
UNS DesignationNominal Composition (wt%)Tensile Strength (ksi)Yield Strength (ksi)Elongation (%)
C92200Cu 86.0-90.0, Sn 5.5-6.5, Pb 1.0-2.0, Zn 3.0-5.0402030
C93200Cu 81.0-85.0, Sn 6.3-7.5, Pb 6.0-8.0, Zn 1.0-4.0351820
These alloys are widely used in bearings, bushings, gears, valves, fittings, and marine hardware where good antifriction properties and pressure tightness are required, such as in pumps, steam equipment, and automotive components. Overall, leaded tin bronzes provide a cost-effective solution for demanding applications balancing strength and ease of fabrication.

Aluminum-Containing Alloys

Low-Aluminum Bronzes

Low-aluminum bronzes are a class of copper-aluminum alloys containing 5-11% aluminum, along with additions of iron, , or , and are designated under the (UNS) as C60600 to C64400. These alloys can be produced in both wrought and cast forms, offering a balance of strength, , and resistance suitable for moderate environmental exposures. Representative key alloys include C61400, which has a nominal composition of 6-8% Al and 1.5-3.5% Fe, commonly used as rods and fasteners due to its good weldability and mechanical integrity. C63000, with 9-11% (typically around 9%), 4-5.5% Ni, and 2-4% Fe, is favored for high-strength applications like marine propellers, providing enhanced toughness through its nickel content. These alloys exhibit good tensile strength in the range of 500-700 MPa, depending on temper and processing, alongside moderate electrical conductivity of 7-15% IACS, which supports their use in non-electrical structural roles. Their superior resistance to seawater stems from the formation of a protective aluminum film on the surface, combined with a duplex microstructure of alpha phase for and kappa precipitates for hardening, enabling reliable performance in saline environments without significant pitting or erosion. Applications encompass marine fasteners, valves, and pump components (e.g., C61400 for corrosion-resistant hardware), as well as propeller shafts (e.g., C63000 for its high load-bearing capacity). Iron and alloying elements are critical to preventing hot shortness during by refining the microstructure and stabilizing the kappa phase, thereby improving overall toughness and resistance to cracking.

High-Aluminum Bronzes

High-aluminum bronzes are copper-based alloys containing 9-14% aluminum, along with additions of iron, , , and sometimes , which enhance their mechanical properties and resistance. These alloys, classified under UNS designations such as C95200 through C95900, are primarily produced as castings due to their high strength in as-cast or heat-treated conditions. The elevated aluminum content promotes the formation of a protective layer, while iron and contribute to and improved toughness. Prominent examples include UNS C95400, which consists of approximately 83% , 11% aluminum, 4% iron, and 1.5% , making it suitable for heavy-duty castings requiring exceptional wear resistance. UNS C95800, a -aluminum with about 81% , 9% aluminum, 4% iron, and 4.5% , offers superior performance in demanding environments, while its variant C95820 incorporates around 5% for enhanced marine durability. These alloys exhibit very high tensile strength ranging from 700-1000 MPa in heat-treated states, up to 200 HB, and outstanding resistance to , outperforming many steels in erosive flow conditions. In applications, high-aluminum bronzes are widely used for ship propellers, where C95800 provides non-magnetic properties and galvanic compatibility; aircraft landing gear components, leveraging their high strength-to-weight ratio; and pump impellers, benefiting from abrasion resistance in fluid-handling systems. , such as from 900-950°C followed by tempering, induces a martensitic structure that maximizes strength and while maintaining . However, these alloys are susceptible to in chloride-rich environments without adequate alloying elements like or to stabilize the microstructure.

Nickel-Containing Alloys

Cupronickels

Cupronickels are copper-based alloys classified under the Unified Numbering System (UNS) as C7xxxx series, typically containing 10-30% nickel along with small additions of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) for enhanced performance, and available in both wrought and cast forms. These alloys are distinguished by their binary copper-nickel composition, where nickel provides solid solution strengthening and improves corrosion resistance without forming intermetallic compounds. Key cupronickel alloys include the 90-10 variant (UNS C70600), which consists of approximately 90% copper, 10% nickel, 1-2% iron, and 0.5-1% manganese, commonly used for piping systems due to its balance of cost and durability. The 70-30 alloy (UNS C71500) features about 70% copper, 30% nickel, 0.4-1% iron, and 0.5-1.5% manganese, offering superior resistance for demanding applications like condensers and heat exchangers. Iron additions, typically at 1-2%, are critical for improving resistance to impingement corrosion in high-velocity flowing seawater by promoting the formation of a stable protective oxide layer. These alloys exhibit excellent resistance in marine and chemical environments, including resistance to , , and in , with equilibrium corrosion rates as low as 0.0025 mm/year under typical flow conditions. They offer electrical conductivity in the range of 4-10% IACS and good , with annealed forms achieving elongations greater than 40%, enabling to enhance strength up to tensile values of 372-517 MPa. Mechanically, they maintain thermal stability and moderate strength, with densities around 8.94 g/cm³ and melting points near 1171°C. Cupronickels are widely applied in piping, desalination plants for multistage flash , and condenser tubing in power plants, where their resistance to erosion and ensures long-term reliability. They are also used in coinage for their durability and , as well as in offshore fire water systems, ship fittings, and hydraulic lines.

Nickel Silvers

Nickel silvers are a family of wrought ternary alloys composed primarily of , with additions of 10-30% and 10-20% , classified under the UNS C7xxx series. These alloys derive their silvery appearance and enhanced properties from the content, building on the resistance of copper-nickel binaries while incorporating for improved formability and cost-effectiveness. Despite the name, nickel silvers contain no actual silver and are valued for their aesthetic appeal rather than content. The alloys, known historically as paktong and produced in China from nickel-containing ores since at least the 16th century, were adapted and significantly developed in starting in the late 18th century, particularly in during the early 19th century for imitation silver and ornamental items, where the white color mimicked at a lower cost. Key examples include , designated UNS C74500, which typically consists of 63.5-66.5% , 9-11% , and the balance (approximately 22-27%), used in hardware and decorative applications for its . Another prominent variant is U.S. nickel silver, UNS C75700, with a composition of 63.5-66.5% , 11-13% , and 19-25% , favored for musical instruments due to its and workability. These alloys exhibit an attractive white or silvery color, excellent resistance to atmospheric and corrosion, and moderate mechanical strength ranging from 400-600 MPa in tensile properties depending on temper. Electrical conductivity is relatively low at 5-15% IACS, limiting electrical applications but suiting decorative and mechanical uses. They offer good cold formability, enabling processes like rolling and stamping for finishes, though is fair without lead additions. Common applications leverage these traits in jewelry, keys, musical instrument valves and components, zippers, and slide fasteners, where the corrosion resistance and aesthetic sheen provide long-term appeal. Cold rolling is often employed to achieve precise shapes and polished surfaces for hardware and ornamental pieces.

Other Specialized Alloys

Silicon Bronzes

Silicon bronzes refer to a group of wrought (UNS C64700–C66100) and cast (UNS C87000–C87900) copper alloys typically containing 3% silicon with additions of manganese and iron for enhanced properties. These alloys achieve strengthening through solid solution mechanisms and are valued for their balance of strength and formability. Representative alloys include C65500, a wrought high-silicon variant with approximately 3% used primarily for bolts and fasteners due to its moderate strength and resistance; C87600, a alloy with 3.5–5.5% and 4–7% suited for valves and pump components; and C87200, known as , featuring up to 5% for applications requiring good ability like architectural hardware. These alloys provide high tensile strength in the range of 500-700 MPa for wrought forms, excellent weldability for processes like TIG and MIG, superior resistance to oxidation and scaling at elevated temperatures up to 700°C, and electrical conductivity of 6-12% IACS. Silicon bronzes find use in fasteners, rods and wire, chemical processing hardware, and marine components, where their hot and cold workability supports fabrication into complex shapes. In comparison to aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes demonstrate superior castability and formability, making them advantageous for intricate components.

Beryllium Copper Alloys

Beryllium copper alloys are high-performance wrought copper alloys containing 0.4–2% , designated under UNS C17000–C17500, which achieve exceptional strength through . These alloys offer tensile strengths up to 1400 MPa, electrical conductivity of 20–60% IACS, and good corrosion resistance, while maintaining . Due to beryllium's , handling requires precautions to avoid or skin contact. They are widely used in applications demanding high strength and conductivity, such as electrical connectors, spring contacts, precision instruments, , diaphragms, and non-sparking tools for environments.

Precious Metal Alloys

Copper-Gold Alloys

Copper-gold alloys, part of the binary Cu-Au system, typically span compositions from 10 to 90 wt.% Au, with copper providing enhanced strength and color variation while imparts and resistance. These alloys often incorporate ternary additions such as silver or to refine color and workability, though standardized UNS designations are absent, and compositions are instead defined by jewelry karats (e.g., 24 karat pure Au, lower karats indicating alloying). Key examples include 18 karat gold, comprising 75 wt.% Au and 25 wt.% Cu for a distinctive red hue due to copper's influence on , and white gold variants such as Au-Cu-Ni alloys where whitens the appearance while maintaining . Electrodepositable AuCu alloys, with near-equiatomic compositions, are also notable for thin-film applications requiring precise . These alloys exhibit high corrosion resistance, particularly in high-karat formulations (>18 karat), owing to gold's inertness, which prevents oxidation and tarnishing even in harsh environments. Color tunability ranges from red (Cu-rich) to greenish tones (with Ag/Zn additions), achieved through compositional adjustments that alter reflection and absorption. They demonstrate good , with elongations of 4-50%, and electrical conductivity suitable for contacts, alongside values up to 360 HV in 18 karat variants after or . In the Cu-Au , ordered structures like the AuCu (L1₀-type tetragonal) phase form below 410°C, enhancing mechanical strength through atomic ordering that resists motion. Applications leverage these attributes in jewelry and coinage, where 18 karat Au-Cu alloys dominate for ornaments due to their balance of , durability, and resistance to wear, accounting for a significant portion of global gold fabrication. Historical coins often employed 90% Au with Cu for divisibility and resistance since ancient times. In electronics, Au-Cu alloys serve as electrical contacts and plating for high-reliability components, benefiting from low and conductivity in vacuum environments, while annealing improves workability for fabrication.

Copper-Silver Alloys

Copper-silver alloys (Cu-Ag) consist of copper as the base metal with silver additions typically ranging from 0.1% to 30% by weight, forming binary systems valued for their combined electrical and mechanical performance. These alloys fall within the high-copper category in the Unified Numbering System (UNS), particularly designations C18000 through C19900, which encompass compositions exceeding 96% copper and may incorporate dispersion strengthening for enhanced stability. The limited solid solubility of silver in copper (maximum about 8% at the eutectic temperature) results in microstructures that can be tailored via solid solution strengthening or precipitation for specific needs. Representative alloys include silver-bearing tough pitch such as UNS C11600 (0.08–0.12% Ag), which provides superior creep resistance and softening temperature compared to pure ; and high-silver fine silver- mixtures used in fillers. UNS C11700, with silver content exceeding 0.085%, exemplifies a variant suited for components due to its high and resistance to deformation under . These alloys exhibit enhanced electrical conductivity, often reaching 101% IACS in low-silver variants like C11600, surpassing standard electrolytic tough pitch copper while maintaining excellent thermal conductivity around 224 Btu/sq ft/ft hr/°F. Silver additions improve high-temperature softening resistance by elevating the recrystallization point (up to 200–300°C higher than pure ) and provide moderate strength gains, with tensile strengths of 200–280 N/mm² in annealed forms. The immiscible nature of Cu and Ag enables dispersion strengthening, yielding good balance of (45–100 BHN) and formability. Copper-silver alloys find use in high-end electrical cables and RF components, where low-silver contents ensure minimal conductivity loss and superior stability for demanding environments like . In processes, such as mechanical alloying followed by sintering, uniform silver dispersions in copper matrices enable advanced applications in high-strength conductive wires for . For , high-silver compositions serve as fillers due to the system's eutectic at 779°C with 71.9 wt% Ag and 28.1 wt% Cu, providing excellent and low-temperature joining without in conditions.

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