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Cyprinus
Cyprinus
Cyprinus
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Typical carps
Temporal range: Miocene–recent
Wild-type common carp (C. carpio)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Cyprinidae
Subfamily: Cyprininae
Genus: Cyprinus
Linnaeus, 1758
Type species
Cyprinus carpio
Species

19 living species
5 possibly recently extinct
1 fossil

Synonyms
  • Mesocyprinus Fang, 1936

Cyprinus /sɪˈpraɪnəs/ is the genus of typical carps in family Cyprinidae. Most species in the genus are of East Asia origin with only the common carp (C. carpio) in Western Asia and Europe; this invasive species has also been introduced to many other regions around the world.[1] Cyprinus are closely related to some more barb-like genera, such as Cyclocheilichthys and Barbonymus (tinfoils). The crucian carps (Carassius) of western Eurasia, which include the goldfish (C. auratus), are apparently not as closely related.[2]

This genus's most widespread and well-known member is the common carp (C. carpio) species complex. Although traditionally considered a single species, recent authorities have split the European and West Asian populations from the East Asian, with the latter named C. rubrofuscus (syn. C. carpio haematopterus).[3][4] Members of the species complex are famed as a food fish and have been widely traded and introduced since antiquity, but in certain areas has multiplied inordinately and become a pest. In its long use it has been domesticated, and a number of breeds have been developed for food and other purposes. The koi (from Japanese nishikigoi, 錦鯉) are well-known carp breeds, selectively bred for being enjoyed by spectators from above. Strictly speaking, koi is simply the Japanese name of the East Asian carp.

The other species of typical carp are generally found in more restricted areas of eastern Asia, centered on the Yunnan region. In some cases, they are endemic to a single lake, most notably Lake Erhai, as well as Lake Dian, Fuxian Lake, Lake Jilu, Lake Qilihu, Lake Xingyun and Lake Yi-Lung, which are all in Yunnan proper. Several of these species are seriously threatened and five are possibly already extinct: C. yilongensis (Lake Yi-Lung), C. yunnanensis (Lake Qilihu), C. daliensis (Lake Erhai), C. megalophthalmus (Lake Erhai) and C. fuxianensis (Fuxian Lake).[5][6][7]

Species

[edit]
Japanese koi (ornamental domesticated carp) with various colors

The following species are currently recognized in the genus.[8]

Fossil species

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cyprinus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Cyprinus is a of ray-finned fishes in the family (carp family), subfamily Cyprininae, consisting of typical s characterized by an elongated, moderately deep body, a small protrusible mouth with two pairs of barbels, and for grinding food. The includes approximately 16–24 , depending on taxonomic authority, all native to freshwater habitats in , with the majority endemic to , particularly rivers and lakes in . These omnivorous fish typically feed on benthic invertebrates, , and , and many exhibit high plasticity in form and color due to environmental and genetic factors. The most widespread and economically significant member of the genus is the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), which has been domesticated for over 2,000 years and introduced globally for aquaculture, sport fishing, and as an ornamental fish (koi varieties). Other notable species include Cyprinus rubrofuscus (the ancestral form of koi carp) and several Yunnan endemics like the endangered Cyprinus acutidorsalis and the extinct Cyprinus yilongensis, some of which were threatened by habitat loss and overfishing. Phylogenetically, Cyprinus diverged from related genera such as Carassius around 57 million years ago, with recent radiations in isolated lake systems driving speciation in East Asia. Species in Cyprinus are broadcast spawners that reproduce in shallow, vegetated waters during spring and summer, producing large numbers of adhesive eggs that attach to aquatic plants. The genus plays a crucial role in both wild ecosystems as mid-level consumers and in human economies, contributing to global production exceeding millions of tons annually (over 4 million metric tons as of ), primarily through C. carpio farming. However, introductions of common carp have led to ecological concerns, including degradation in non-native regions due to their bottom-feeding .

Taxonomy

Etymology and History

The genus name Cyprinus derives from the Latin cyprinus, which itself originates from the ancient Greek kyprinos (κυπρίνος), referring to a carp-like fish noted for its bronze or henna-like coloration. This term appears in classical texts, such as Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia (Book 9, sections 29 and 58), where cyprinus is described as a freshwater fish occasionally found in brackish or marine environments like the Black Sea, often mentioned alongside the silurus (catfish) and characterized by its vulnerability to lightning strikes. The name's etymology may also allude to the fecundity of the fish, indirectly linking to the Greek kúpris (κύπρις), a epithet for Aphrodite, goddess associated with Cyprus and fertility, though the primary association remains with the fish's appearance in ancient Mediterranean ichthyological observations. The genus Cyprinus was formally established in the 10th edition of Carl Linnaeus's in 1758, where it was introduced as a taxonomic category within the class Pisces. Linnaeus designated Cyprinus carpio—the common carp—as the type species by monotypy, providing a that encompassed the carp's distinctive features, such as its robust body and barbels, based on European specimens. This classification marked a pivotal moment in systematic , integrating observations from earlier naturalists into a hierarchical framework that emphasized morphological traits for genus-level distinction. Subsequent taxonomic revisions refined the genus's scope, particularly for Asian species. In 1936, Paul W. Fang proposed the subgenus Mesocyprinus in the journal Sinensia to accommodate certain East Asian forms, such as Cyprinus micristius, distinguished by fewer branched dorsal-fin rays and other meristic differences from the nominate . Earlier, in 1803, Bernard-Germain-Étienne de La Ville-sur-Illon (Lacepède) contributed to the genus's diversification in his des poissons (Volume 5), where he described Cyprinus rubrofuscus—a reddish-brown variant from Chinese waters—as a distinct species based on coloration and habitat notes, illustrated on plate 16, figure 1, laying groundwork for recognizing intraspecific variation within Cyprinus. These developments highlighted the genus's morphological plasticity and geographic breadth within the family.

Classification

The genus Cyprinus is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class , order , family , and subfamily Cyprininae. Phylogenetic analyses using molecular data, including (mtDNA) such as cytochrome b and control regions, as well as nuclear genes like recombination activating gene 2 (RAG2), have confirmed that Cyprinus forms a monophyletic group with origins in during the mid-Eocene. Within the genus, subgeneric divisions have been proposed, such as the subgenus Mesocyprinus Fang, 1936, which includes species like C. yilongensis based on cladistic analyses of morphological traits including ray counts and body proportions. Ongoing taxonomic debates center on the common carp (C. carpio), particularly whether to recognize multiple such as C. c. carpio (European), C. c. haematopterus (East Asian), and others, as molecular phylogenies using mtDNA and nuclear markers reveal varying levels of genetic divergence that challenge traditional morphological distinctions. As of 2025, approximately 24 species are recognized in the genus Cyprinus, with 19 extant and 5 possibly extinct according to FishBase and IUCN assessments, including critically endangered taxa like C. fuxianensis and the confirmed extinct C. yilongensis.

Physical Description

Morphology

The genus Cyprinus is characterized by fish possessing an elongated, robust body form that is deep and laterally compressed, providing a fusiform profile adapted for freshwater environments. Scales are large, thick, and cycloid, covering the body in a regular pattern with typically 32-39 along the lateral line. This morphology contributes to their streamlined yet sturdy build, with body height ranging from 1:3.2 to 4.8 times the standard length in wild forms. The head features a terminal, protrusible equipped with thick suitable for bottom-feeding, often accompanied by two pairs of barbels (rostral and maxillary) that aid in sensory detection. are arranged in three rows on robust, molar-like bones, typically in the formula 1,1,3-3,1,1, which is a defining trait of the family. Eyes are relatively small, positioned laterally for vigilance in turbid waters. Fins include a with 3-4 spines and 17-23 soft rays, the last unbranched ray often strong and weakly serrated; the anal fin has 2-3 spines and 5-7 soft rays, with the last simple ray bony and serrated. The caudal fin is deeply forked, comprising 3 spines and 17-19 rays, while paired fins are pectoral and pelvic, with the latter positioned abdominal. Size varies across the genus, with C. carpio reaching up to 120 cm in total length and 40 kg, whereas smaller average 20-40 cm. Coloration in wild Cyprinus species is typically olive-green to golden-brown on the dorsal surface, transitioning to silvery or yellowish sides and a white ventral area, often with irregular dark spots. Domesticated variants, such as derived from C. rubrofuscus, exhibit striking multicolored patterns including reds, whites, and blacks. Species-specific variations in ray counts and overall proportions occur but maintain the core cyprinid structure.

Variations Among Species

Cyprinus species exhibit notable morphological variations, particularly in sensory structures like barbels, which are present in most taxa but absent in specialized forms such as C. pellegrini, a barbless carp endemic to lakes in Province, , where the lack of barbels reflects adaptations to planktonic feeding in open water. In contrast, C. carpio, the common carp, possesses four prominent barbels—two rostral and two maxillary— aiding in bottom across diverse substrates. Scale patterns show significant diversity within the , most prominently in domesticated lineages of C. carpio. Wild-type individuals feature large, regularly arranged scales covering the body, providing robust protection. However, has produced mirror carp variants with reduced and irregularly distributed scales, often forming linear or scattered patterns along the and flanks, which can comprise as few as 20-40% of the typical scale count. Leather carp, another variant, display even fewer scales—sometimes only a few scattered along the dorsal and s—resulting in a nearly naked appearance due to a recessive genetic trait affecting scale development. Body proportions vary among species adapted to specific lacustrine environments. High-altitude species like C. dai from northern Vietnam's Black River basin show more elongated body forms suited to flowing, oxygenated streams. Coloration extremes highlight adaptive and ornamental divergences. C. rubrofuscus, the wild progenitor of , displays silvery body hues with reddish pigmentation in the pelvic, anal, and lower caudal fins, a pattern intensified through to produce vibrant red, orange, and white variants in ornamental strains. Size disparities underscore the genus's ecological breadth, ranging from giant forms like C. carpio, which can attain lengths of 120 cm and weights exceeding 40 kg in optimal conditions, to dwarf species such as C. chilia from Yunnan's plateau lakes, where maximum total length is limited to 16.8 cm, reflecting constraints of isolated, nutrient-poor habitats.

Habitat and Distribution

Native Habitats

The genus Cyprinus is native primarily to , with the majority of its species endemic to freshwater systems in , particularly the plateau lakes of Province, as well as regions in and . These habitats include isolated tectonic lakes such as Dian Chi, , Erhai Lake, Qilu Lake, and Xingyun Lake in Yunnan, where species like C. micristius, C. fuxianensis, C. longipectoralis, C. yunnanensis, and C. pellegrini are restricted. In Myanmar, C. intha is confined to in the upper Irrawaddy basin on the Shan Plateau, while in Vietnam, species such as C. rubrofuscus occur in drainages like the Red River. Cyprinus species inhabit freshwater rivers, lakes, and wetlands characterized by slow-moving or still waters, often preferring vegetated shallows and muddy or soft-bottom substrates that support their foraging behaviors. For instance, C. micristius in Dian Chi thrives in calm waters abundant with aquatic vegetation, while C. yunnanensis in Qilu Lake occupies shallow areas with in the middle and lower water layers. These environments provide cover and resources, including and matter, in systems with minimal current. Altitudinal variation is notable across the genus, with C. carpio favoring lowland rivers and basins below 500 m in eastern , whereas Yunnan-endemic species occupy high-elevation plateau lakes ranging from approximately 1,700 to 2,700 m above , such as at 1,721 m and Erhai Lake at 1,972 m. These elevated habitats feature cooler temperatures and oligotrophic to eutrophic conditions suited to the adaptive physiology of local Cyprinus taxa. Cyprinus species exhibit tolerance to variable , including low dissolved oxygen levels as low as 0.3–0.5 mg/L and high , enabling persistence in seasonally fluctuating or degraded native systems. This resilience is evident in lakes, where has altered conditions but endemic species like C. chilia continue to inhabit profundal zones with soft sediments. High underscores vulnerability, as many species, such as C. intha in [Inle Lake](/page/Inle Lake), are restricted to single water bodies prone to isolation and localized threats.

Global Introduction and Invasiveness

The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), native to freshwater systems across from the basin to , has been extensively translocated by humans beyond its indigenous range, primarily for and food production. Historical records indicate that the Romans facilitated its initial widespread dissemination in during the AD, transporting stocks from the River to establish pond cultures across the empire. Subsequent medieval monastic practices in further expanded its cultivation, while global trade and propelled introductions to distant continents: to via ornamental and imports in the 1850s–1870s, and to the starting in the mid-19th century, with successful establishments in the United States by the through federal programs. These anthropogenic dispersals have resulted in C. carpio becoming one of the most widely introduced fish , absent only from polar regions like due to unsuitable cold-water conditions. Today, non-native populations of C. carpio are established in over 90 countries across temperate and tropical zones, including extensive distributions in North America—such as the Great Lakes and Mississippi River basin—Australia's Murray-Darling Basin, and various African river systems like the Nile and Zambezi. In these regions, the species thrives in eutrophic, lowland rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, often reaching high densities that alter local hydrology and biota. While other Cyprinus species, such as East Asian endemics like C. rubrofuscus (commonly associated with koi varieties), have seen limited experimental introductions for ornamental or aquaculture purposes, most have failed to establish self-sustaining wild populations outside their native Asian habitats. C. carpio is classified as invasive in more than 100 countries, where its foraging behaviors—rooting in sediments with its and carp-like mouth—uproot aquatic vegetation, resuspend nutrients, and elevate water , thereby reducing light penetration and primary productivity essential for native flora and invertebrates. These actions cascade through food webs, intensifying algal blooms, diminishing for sight-feeding and waterfowl, and enabling competitive dominance over endemic for resources like and benthic organisms, which can lead to declines of up to 50% in heavily invaded shallow lakes. In North American wetlands, for instance, carp invasions have been linked to reduced populations of native cyprinids and amphibians by altering spawning substrates and oxygen levels. Efforts to mitigate C. carpio invasiveness include targeted control programs, such as Australia's National Carp Control Plan (NCCP), initiated in 2018 and ongoing as of 2025, which integrates physical removal, habitat restoration, and biological agents like the Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 to potentially reduce populations by 40–80% in priority waterways. The NCCP's virus release trials, planned for late 2025 pending environmental approvals, aim to address the species' dominance in over 80% of the without broadly impacting non-target natives. Similar strategies in , including commercial harvesting and barriers in the , underscore global recognition of the need for multifaceted interventions to curb ecological disruptions.

Species Diversity

Extant Species

The genus Cyprinus encompasses 24 recognized species of carp, all native to freshwater systems across Asia, particularly in China, Myanmar, and Vietnam, with one species (C. carpio) widely introduced worldwide for aquaculture and ornamental purposes. Of these, 19 are confirmed extant based on recent records, while 5 are classified by the IUCN as Extinct or Critically Endangered (possibly extinct), including C. yilongensis (Extinct, last sighted in Lake Yilong, China, during the 1980s), C. micristius (Critically Endangered, possibly extinct, Dianchi Lake endemic), C. qionghaiensis (Critically Endangered, possibly extinct, Qionghai Lake), C. yunnanensis (Critically Endangered, possibly extinct, Dianchi Lake), and C. quidatensis (Data Deficient, northern Vietnam). Many extant species are endemic to specific lakes or river basins and face threats from habitat loss and hybridization, leading to numerous IUCN listings as critically endangered or endangered (as of IUCN Red List version 2025-1). The following table summarizes the 19 confirmed extant species, highlighting key characteristics such as maximum reported length, native distribution, and status (where assessed; unassessed species lack formal evaluation but are presumed extant from distributional records, as of IUCN Red List version 2025-1). Lengths are approximate maxima from verified specimens.
Scientific NameCommon Name (if applicable)Max Length (cm)Native DistributionIUCN Status
C. acutidorsalis-27 (SL)Upper River basin,
C. barbatusErhai carp35 (OT)Erhai Lake, , Critically Endangered (possibly extinct)
C. carpioCommon carp120 (TL) to ; globally introducedLeast Concern
C. chilia-16.8 (TL), , Endangered
C. dai--Lancang River basin,
C. daliensis-24.5 (SL)Dali region lakes, , Vulnerable
C. exophthalmus--Upper ,
C. fuxianensis22.2 (SL), , Critically Endangered (possibly extinct)
C. hieni--Red River basin,
C. hyperdorsalis--Upper ,
C. ilishaestomus30 (NG)Upper , Critically Endangered
C. intha30 (NG), Endangered
C. longipectoralis-35 (OT)Upper , Critically Endangered
C. longzhouensis-17.7 (SL)Longzhou region,
C. megalophthalmus-24.2 (SL)Upper , Critically Endangered
C. melanes-- River basin,
C. multitaeniatus-42 (TL), Endangered
C. pellegriniBarbel-less 30 (TL) River basin, Critically Endangered
C. rubrofuscus28 (SL) (, ); ornamentalNot Evaluated
Notable among these, C. carpio is the largest and most ecologically adaptable, inhabiting rivers, lakes, and reservoirs across its native range from the basin to eastern , while its global introductions have established feral populations on every continent except . C. rubrofuscus, often selectively bred for colorful varieties in , remains primarily confined to East Asian waters but has escaped into wild populations elsewhere. Endemics like C. intha are restricted to isolated habitats such as , where they exhibit adaptations to high-altitude, vegetated shallows, and C. pellegrini lacks barbels, distinguishing it from most congeners in the turbulent waters of the . Smaller lake-dwellers, such as C. chilia and C. dai, typically measure under 20 cm and are adapted to oligotrophic conditions in plateau lakes. The high proportion of underscores the genus's vulnerability to anthropogenic pressures in its Asian heartland.

Fossil Record

The fossil record of the genus Cyprinus begins in the late Eocene epoch, with the earliest known representative being Cyprinus maomingensis from the Youganwo Formation in the Basin, Province, , dating to approximately 40 million years ago. This species was initially described based on poorly preserved specimens exhibiting serrated dorsal and anal fin rays, and subsequent revisions have highlighted its patterns, underscoring its position as an early member of the tribe Cyprinini. These findings mark the initial appearance of the genus in the paleontological record, primarily preserved in lacustrine deposits that reflect ancient freshwater environments in . Subsequent fossils document the genus's presence through the and , including Cyprinus (Mesocyprinus) okuyamai from the Pliocene Ueno Formation of the Kobiwako Group in , identified from pharyngeal bones and teeth characteristic of the subgenus. Pharyngeal teeth attributed to Cyprinus have also been recovered from middle to lake sediments in the Shargan Gobi region of , featuring detached molariform teeth with one or two grinding grooves. In , isolated resembling those of modern Cyprinus carpio—with wavy grinding surfaces—were found in middle (Serravallian) and upper (earliest Messinian) deposits in the Granada Basin and Guadix-Baza Depression of , , representing the sole pre-Pleistocene European occurrence. At least five to ten fossil species or attributable remains have been described, with the majority originating from Asian localities such as , , , and adjacent regions. These discoveries indicate an East Asian origin for Cyprinus, likely centered in southern , followed by radiation across during the era, facilitated by expanding freshwater systems amid tectonic changes. The consistent morphology of pharyngeal bones and teeth—robust, molariform structures adapted for grinding —directly links forms to extant species, suggesting morphological stability within the genus over millions of years. However, significant gaps persist, including sparse Oligocene material (with Cyprinus-like forms often classified in separate genera) and relatively few detailed records despite later abundance; notably, no pre-Eocene fossils of the genus have been identified, aligning with the broader onset of cyprinid diversification.

Ecology

Diet and Feeding Habits

Most species of the genus Cyprinus, such as C. carpio, are omnivorous, with diets comprising a mix of benthic invertebrates such as insects (e.g., chironomids and dipterans), mollusks (e.g., gastropods and bivalves), zooplankton, plant matter including macrophytes and algae, and detritus. However, ecological traits vary, with some East Asian endemics showing specialized diets; for example, the extinct C. yilongensis fed mainly on plankton in deep lake habitats without waterweeds. They opportunistically consume small fish eggs or fry when available, though this forms a minor component. In C. carpio, detritus often dominates volumetrically (up to 40%), reflecting its role as a detritivore in aquatic ecosystems. Feeding in species like C. carpio occurs primarily as bottom-dwellers using suction mechanisms facilitated by a protrusible upper that forms a round mouth for ingesting and prey. This stirs up bottom sediments, leading to increased water through bioturbation. Food is processed using specialized pharyngeal grinding teeth arranged in patterns for crushing and grinding, enabling efficient handling of diverse items like hard-shelled mollusks and fibrous . These adaptations support polyphagous , with head and movements allowing selective retention and transport via muscular pharyngeal pads. In Cyprinus carpio, the primary species, daily consumption reaches 3-5% of body weight, supporting rapid growth in natural and settings. Juveniles exhibit a higher reliance on protein-rich animal foods like and (comprising over 50% of gut volume), while adults shift toward plant-based and detrital items (up to 70% of diet). This ontogenetic dietary shift reflects changing nutritional needs and efficiency with size. Seasonal variations influence diet composition, with greater intake of plant matter and during wet or warmer periods when macrophytes are abundant, and increased consumption of during dry or cooler seasons. Overall feeding activity is higher in wet seasons, enhancing opportunistic exploitation of available resources.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Species of the genus Cyprinus, particularly C. carpio, reproduce through during spawning events that typically occur in spring or summer, depending on water temperature and regional climate. During spawning, females release eggs that attach to submerged or substrates, while multiple males simultaneously release to fertilize the eggs in a group spawning behavior. This process lacks any form of , leaving eggs vulnerable to predation and environmental factors, resulting in high mortality rates during the early developmental stages. Fecundity varies by species size and individual condition; for C. carpio, a typical of about 45 cm in length produces approximately 300,000 eggs per spawning event, with estimates reaching up to 1 million eggs over the entire breeding season, while smaller Cyprinus yield fewer eggs proportional to their body size. Wild individuals are often partial spawners, releasing eggs in multiple batches, whereas domesticated strains tend to release all mature eggs in a single event, sometimes induced by hormones in settings. Cyprinus are iteroparous, spawning repeatedly over multiple seasons, with semelparity being rare. The life cycle begins with eggs that hatch in 2–5 days at temperatures of 25–32°C, producing larvae measuring 3–6 mm in length. Larvae are initially planktonic, relying on their for nutrition until it is absorbed around 8 mm, after which they actively feed on and small . Juveniles exhibit rapid growth, often increasing in length by 10–12 cm per year in the first few years under optimal conditions, transitioning to a diet that includes , macroinvertebrates, and matter. is reached at 2–5 years of age, with males typically maturing earlier (3 years) than females (4–5 years), depending on environmental factors. In the wild, Cyprinus individuals live 10–20 years on average, though domesticated C. carpio have been recorded up to 47 years in captivity, reflecting reduced predation and stable conditions.

Human Interactions

Aquaculture and Fisheries

Cyprinus carpio dominates global production among the genus, accounting for over 4 million tonnes annually as of 2022 estimates, primarily driven by farming in . leads as the largest producer, followed by and , with the species comprising a significant portion of freshwater aquaculture output. In addition, C. rubrofuscus ( carp) supports a thriving ornamental market valued at approximately USD 2.7 billion in 2024, fueled by demand for selectively bred color variants in and aquaria worldwide. Farming practices for Cyprinus species emphasize semi-intensive pond systems, particularly in , , and , where earthen ponds are stocked at densities of 1-3 fish per square meter to leverage natural productivity. is common, integrating C. carpio with Chinese carps like (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and (Ctenopharyngodon idella) to optimize resource use and yields, often achieving 5-10 tonnes per hectare annually through supplemental feeding with grains and plant-based diets. These systems benefit from the species' tolerance to low oxygen and high stocking densities, enabling efficient production in tropical and temperate regions. Wild capture fisheries for Cyprinus carpio contribute around 300,000 tonnes per year globally, concentrated in Asian river basins such as the and , as well as introduced populations in and . Harvests typically occur via gillnets and traps during seasonal migrations, supporting local markets and providing a supplementary source to . Selective breeding has shaped C. carpio varieties over centuries, originating in during the with mutations for scale reduction—the "S" gene for mirror carp (large, irregular scales) and "N" gene for leather carp (nearly scaleless skin)—enhancing ease of processing and disease resistance. In , color variants like those in (C. rubrofuscus) were developed from the 18th century onward, selecting for red, white, and black patterns through controlled matings, resulting in over 100 recognized strains today. Nutritionally, C. carpio offers high-quality protein at 16-20% of fillet weight, alongside essential and polyunsaturated fats including omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA, contributing to cardiovascular benefits. In , particularly Chinese and Eastern European traditions, holds cultural importance as a festive dish symbolizing abundance, often prepared whole and steamed or braised for holidays like the .

Conservation and Threats

Many endemic species within the genus Cyprinus face significant threats from , particularly in China's Province, where lake drainage and water diversion projects have led to the of C. yilongensis in Yilong Lake in 1981. Overfishing has contributed to severe population declines, such as the over 80% reduction in C. fuxianensis in over the past two decades. from and agricultural runoff further endangers species like C. qionghaiensis in Qionghai Lake. Invasive non-native species, including introduced carps, pose risks through competition and hybridization, exacerbating declines in native populations across plateau lakes. At least five Cyprinus species are considered possibly extinct, including C. yilongensis confirmed as lost due to complete habitat loss from drying the lake for agricultural purposes. A high proportion of endemic Cyprinus species in are threatened, reflecting broader patterns where construction, , and affect over one-third of China's freshwater fishes. Conservation efforts include programs for such as C. intha in , , where induced spawning techniques have been successfully applied to produce juveniles for restocking. Protected areas play a key role, with designated as a Man and the Reserve, Ramsar , and wildlife sanctuary to safeguard C. intha and other endemics from and degradation. For C. carpio, native wild populations in are classified as Least Concern overall (IUCN 2024), though some subpopulations face risks due to alteration and hybridization, and the is often managed as an invasive pest in non-native ranges. International initiatives emphasize research on to support recovery, with studies documenting hybridization risks in wild C. carpio stocks to inform breeding programs. No Cyprinus species are currently listed under , but ongoing IUCN assessments highlight the need for enhanced monitoring. Climate change poses additional threats to high-altitude endemics, as warming temperatures alter lake conditions and reduce viability in Yunnan plateau habitats.

References

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