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Enfilade and defilade
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Enfilade and defilade are concepts in military tactics used to describe a military formation's exposure to enemy fire. A formation or position is "in enfilade" if weapon fire can be directed along its longest axis. A unit or position is "in defilade" if it uses natural or artificial obstacles to shield or conceal itself from enfilade and hostile fire.[1] The strategies, named by the English during the Hundred Years' War, use the French enfiler ("to put on a string or sling") and défiler ("to slip away or off") spoken by English nobility of the time.[2]
Enfilade fire—gunfire directed against an enfiladed formation or position—is also commonly known as "flanking fire".[1] Raking fire is the equivalent term in naval warfare. Strafing, firing on targets from a flying platform, is often done with enfilade fire. It is a very advantageous, and much sought for, position for the attacking force.
Enfilade
[edit]
A formation or position is "in enfilade" if weapon fire can be directed along its longest axis.[3] For instance, a trench is enfiladed if the opponent can fire down the length of the trench. A column of marching troops is enfiladed if fired on from the front or rear such that the projectiles travel the length of the column. A rank or line of advancing troops is enfiladed if fired on from the side (from the flank).[1]
The advantages of enfilading missiles have been appreciated since antiquity, whether in pitched battles such as the Battle of Taginae or in fortifications designed to provide the defenders with opportunities to enfilade attacking forces.[4] Although sophisticated archery tactics grew rare in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, enfilade fire was reemphasized by the late medieval English using ranked archers combined with dismounted knights, first employed at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 and used to devastating effect against the French in the Hundred Years War.[2] The benefit of enfilading an enemy formation is that, by firing along the long axis, it becomes easier to hit targets within that formation. Enfilade fire takes advantage of the fact that it is usually easier to aim laterally (traversing the weapon) than to correctly estimate the range to avoid shooting too long or short. Additionally, both indirect and direct fire projectiles that might miss an intended target are more likely to hit another valuable target within the formation if firing along the long axis.
When planning field and other fortifications, it became common for mutually supporting positions to be arranged so that it became impossible to attack any one position without exposing oneself to enfilading fire from the others, this being found for example in the mutually supporting bastions of star forts, and the caponiers of later fortifications.
Fire is delivered so that the long axis of the target coincides or nearly coincides with the long axis of the beaten zone.
Defilade
[edit]A unit or position is "in defilade" if it uses natural or artificial obstacles to shield or conceal. For an armored fighting vehicle (AFV), defilade is synonymous with a hull-down or turret-down position.
Defilade is also used to refer to a position on the reverse slope of a hill or within a depression in level or rolling terrain. Defiladed positions on hilltops are advantageous because "dead space" – a space that cannot be engaged with direct fire – will be created in front of the position. Ideally, this dead space should be covered by the interlocking fields of fire of other nearby positions, and/or by pre-planned indirect fire such as mortars or other forms of artillery.
In the case of antitank weapons, and especially short-range man-portable antitank rockets, defiladed positions behind a hill have several important advantages. This is because the dead space created by the intervening crest of the hill prevents an approaching tank from using the range of its direct-fire weapons, and neither the attacker nor defender will have a clear shot until the tank is within range of the defending antitank weapon. In such engagements the tank is usually at a further disadvantage because the defender will often be camouflaged while the attacking tank will be silhouetted against the sky, giving the defender an easier shot.
In addition, if the tank fails to detect the defending antitank weapon while the tank is still defiladed, but advances beyond that position to the crest of the hill, it may expose the relatively thinner armor of its lower hull or belly to the defender. Early detection and elimination of antitank threats is an important reason that tanks attack with infantry support.
Artificial entrenchments can provide defilade by allowing troops to seek shelter behind a raised berm that increases the effective height of the ground, within an excavation that allows the troops to shelter below the surface of the ground or a combination of the two. The same principles apply to fighting positions for artillery and armored fighting vehicles.
Enfilade–defilade combination
[edit]A unit sited in defilade threatens an enemy that decides to pass it and move forward, because the enemy would be put in an enfiladed position when moving in a rank.[1] The friendly unit would be in a position that is shielded by terrain from direct enemy fire, while still being able to fire on the enemy in an effective manner.
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Bellamy, Chris (1990). The Evolution of Modern Land Warfare: Theory and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02073-5.
- ^ a b "Chivalry and Betrayal: The Hundred Years War - Trouble in the Family: 1337–1360". 2013-02-11. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
- ^ Marine Rifle Squad. United States Marine Corps. 2007-03-01. p. 2.10. ISBN 978-1-60206-063-0.
- ^ "Military technology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
Further reading
[edit]- Russian Fortresses, 1480–1682. Osprey Publishing. 28 February 2006. ISBN 1-84176-916-9.
- Chartrand, René (March 20, 2005). French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Québec, Montréal, Louisbourg and New Orleans (Fortress 27). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-714-7.
Enfilade and defilade
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Enfilade and defilade are core concepts in military tactics that address the vulnerability of troop formations or positions to enemy direct and indirect fire. Enfilade fire occurs when the long axis of a weapon's beaten zone—the elliptical area on the ground where rounds impact—coincides or nearly coincides with the long axis of the target, enabling gunfire to rake along the length of an enemy line from the flank or front, thus inflicting maximum casualties across multiple ranks.[1] In contrast, defilade refers to the protection afforded by natural or man-made obstacles, such as hills, ridges, or embankments, that shield personnel or equipment from enemy observation and hostile fire by creating dead space or vertical concealment.[2]
Defilade positions are categorized as full (complete concealment of the position) or partial (exposure of upper elements, such as a vehicle's turret while the hull remains protected); they are critical in defensive operations to reduce exposure while allowing outgoing fire.[3] These principles guide the placement of infantry, armor, and artillery to exploit offensive advantages and enhance survivability across varied terrains. Enfilade and defilade have influenced battlefield tactics historically and continue to inform modern operations, as detailed in subsequent sections.
Core Concepts
Enfilade
In military tactics, enfilade refers to a position or formation that is vulnerable to enemy fire directed along its longest axis, allowing projectiles to rake through multiple targets in a single line and thereby maximizing casualties.[1] This occurs when the long axis of the beaten zone— the elliptical area on the ground where rounds impact—coincides or nearly coincides with the long axis of the enemy formation, enabling a single shot to potentially strike several individuals. The term originates from the French word enfiler, meaning "to thread" or "to skewer," evoking the image of bullets piercing a line like a string through beads. Key characteristics of enfilade distinguish it from other fire directions, such as frontal assaults where fire strikes perpendicular to the formation's length. In enfilade, the fire is delivered from the flank or end of the line, creating a sweeping effect that exposes the entire depth of ranks to harm. Enfilade is classified as frontal, when the fire is directed into the end of an enemy column, or flanking, when directed along the side of an enemy line.[1] It encompasses two primary types based on trajectory relative to the ground: grazing enfilade, where the center of the cone of fire remains low (typically not exceeding one meter above the terrain) to skim across open areas, and plunging enfilade, where fire descends from elevated positions onto lower ground, confining the danger space to the immediate target area.[3] This tactical vulnerability offers significant advantages to the attacker, including heightened probability of hits due to the alignment of fire with the target's orientation and the disruption of unit cohesion as troops are forced to maneuver under sustained raking fire. A basic illustration of enfilade depicts an enemy line extending horizontally, with incoming fire originating from one end; the bullet path is shown as a straight or arcing trajectory that threads through successive ranks, highlighting how a narrow frontage can lead to disproportionate losses. Defilade serves as the primary countermeasure, positioning forces to avoid such exposure.[1]Defilade
Defilade refers to the protection afforded to a military position or unit from enemy observation and direct fire through the use of natural or artificial obstacles, thereby reducing vulnerability to enfilade and other line-of-sight attacks. According to the U.S. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, defilade is defined as "protection from hostile observation and fire provided by an obstacle such as a hill, ridge, or bank," or more precisely, "a vertical distance by which a position is concealed from the enemy, measured from the apparent crest of the terrain to the top of the object that is being concealed." There are three primary types of defilade positions, each offering varying degrees of concealment and protection. Full defilade occurs when the entire position, including personnel and equipment, is hidden from enemy ground observation and shielded from direct fire by an intervening natural or artificial obstacle, such as a steep embankment or dense vegetation, allowing no line-of-sight exposure.[5] Partial defilade provides protection against direct fire on the target while permitting the defender to engage over a partial mask, like a low ridge or wall; however, portions of the position may remain visible or exposed to grazing fire or indirect artillery.[5] Reverse-slope defilade utilizes the rear face of an elevated terrain feature, such as a hill or ridge, to place forces out of sight and beyond the effective range of enemy direct-fire weapons, creating dead space that forces attackers into close-range engagements. The key principles of defilade emphasize the strategic selection and exploitation of terrain features—including ridges, depressions, trenches, and constructed barriers like walls or berms—to disrupt enemy lines of sight and fire trajectories. This defensive approach prioritizes minimizing personnel casualties by denying adversaries clear shots, particularly enfilading fire that could rake exposed flanks, while also preserving operational surprise through concealment.[5] Effective implementation requires careful site assessment to balance protection with the need for adequate observation slits or elevated firing points, ensuring the position supports sustained defense without compromising mobility. Despite its benefits, defilade carries tactical drawbacks that commanders must mitigate. Positions in defilade, especially reverse-slope variants, often limit enemy observation but also restrict the defender's ability to detect approaching threats early, potentially allowing foes to close within the dead space undetected. Additionally, restricted fields of fire can hinder counter-firing capabilities, while the terrain isolation may complicate resupply, reinforcement, or evacuation, increasing vulnerability to envelopment or prolonged sieges.Historical Context
Origins and Etymology
The term enfilade derives from the French verb enfiler, meaning "to thread on a string" or "to string together," evoking the image of fire passing through a line of troops or positions like beads on a thread; this linguistic adoption into military usage occurred in the late 17th century, with the figurative sense of raking fire along a formation first attested in English in 1706.[6] The related term defilade, coined as a protective countermeasure, stems from the French défiler ("to unthread"), combining the negative prefix dé- with filer (from Late Latin fīlum, "thread"); it entered English military vocabulary in 1820–1830 to describe arrangements shielding lines from enfilading fire.[7] The conceptual roots of enfilade and defilade emerged in 16th- and 17th-century European siege warfare and linear infantry tactics, as advancements in gunpowder weaponry necessitated optimized fields of fire and protection against them. Influenced by the trace italienne system of bastioned fortifications developed in Renaissance Italy, these ideas emphasized angling defenses to deliver enfilading artillery and musket fire along enemy approach lines while using terrain or earthworks for defilade. French engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban refined these principles in the late 17th century, incorporating enfilade into his star forts through bastion placements that allowed oblique cannon fire to sweep ditches and fronts, as detailed in his fortification designs under Louis XIV.[8] In open-field battles, linear formations of musketeers in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) highlighted the vulnerability to flanking fire, prompting early tactical shifts toward defiladed positioning.[9] The terms gained formal recognition in 18th-century military treatises, appearing in French drill regulations and Prussian manuals that codified infantry and artillery placement to exploit or counter enfilade. For instance, Frederick the Great's 1748 General Principles of War discussed enfilade in the context of oblique attacks and fortification assaults, while French ordnance manuals from the Seven Years' War era integrated defilade into siege instructions. These documents marked the evolution from ad hoc applications to standardized doctrine, reflecting the era's emphasis on disciplined linear tactics. Pre-modern precursors to these concepts appear in ancient warfare, where phalanx formations employed oblique orders to enfilade enemy flanks without the specific terminology; notably, Theban general Epaminondas at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE) deepened his left wing to shatter the Spartan right, creating a raking effect along their line akin to later enfilade. Such maneuvers prioritized concentrating force on vulnerable edges, foreshadowing gunpowder-era developments.Early Military Applications
In the American Revolutionary War, enfilade fire played a crucial role in defensive positions, as seen at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775, where American forces positioned along a rail fence extension of the redoubt delivered galling enfilading fire of round, bar, and chain-shot into the advancing British ranks, inflicting heavy casualties and disrupting their assaults. This tactic exploited the linear advance of British troops, highlighting the vulnerability of extended formations to flanking fire in irregular terrain. Similarly, during the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon Bonaparte employed oblique attacks at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, to concentrate forces against the Allied right flank, rolling up enemy lines and contributing to a decisive French victory. Defilade tactics were equally vital in open battles, exemplified by the Duke of Wellington's reverse-slope positioning at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, where most Allied troops were placed north of the Ohain road behind the Mont-Saint-Jean ridge crest, using the terrain's natural defilade to shield them from French artillery observation and direct fire.[10] This placement minimized casualties during the intense French bombardment around 1:00 p.m., as the soft ground further prevented effective ricochet shots, allowing Wellington's forces to preserve strength for counterattacks. In siege warfare, 17th- and 18th-century engineers like Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban designed bastion forts to maximize enfilade fire, with guns sited along the flanks of bastions providing effective grazing fire across the faces of adjacent walls and ditches to repel attackers.[11] Defilade was achieved through covered approaches, such as traverses and earthworks, which limited exposure to such flanking fire during assaults on fortified positions. The prevalence of linear infantry formations in 18th-century warfare amplified the dangers of enfilade, as extended lines offered broad targets for flanking artillery or musketry, often leading to rapid disintegration if one end was turned. This vulnerability prompted doctrinal shifts toward more flexible tactics, including the adoption of columns for maneuver and skirmishers to screen flanks, reducing reliance on rigid lines by the late 18th century. Key figures like Frederick the Great of Prussia influenced these changes through his emphasis on flank protection; at the Battle of Leuthen on December 5, 1757, he used the oblique order to refuse his unengaged wing in echelon while massing overwhelming force—infantry lines, cavalry, and 30-40 artillery pieces—against the Austrian left flank, shattering the enemy line without exposing his own sides.Tactical Applications
Enfilade Fire Techniques
Enfilade fire techniques emphasize positioning and execution to direct weapon fire along the longest axis of an enemy formation or position, maximizing casualties by engaging multiple targets with a single burst or volley. This approach is achieved through deliberate flanking maneuvers that reposition forces to the side or end of the enemy line, rather than confronting it frontally. Leaders prioritize terrain advantages, such as high ground, to enable either grazing fire—where the projectile trajectory remains low, typically with the center of the fire cone not exceeding one meter above the ground—or plunging fire, which descends steeply onto the target from elevated positions.[3][1] In ambush setups, the L-shaped formation exemplifies effective positioning for enfilade fire, with the long leg of the "L" aligned parallel to the expected enemy path to deliver sustained direct fire, while the short leg extends perpendicularly to provide enfilading fire across the kill zone. This configuration exploits linear enemy movements, such as along trails or roads, creating a crossfire that funnels targets into the beaten zone. Flanking maneuvers are critical to establish this setup undetected, often involving small elements to secure the flank while the main force advances obliquely to the enemy's side.[12] Weapon-specific applications highlight enfilade's versatility across eras and arms. During World War I, machine guns like the Vickers were positioned in trenches to rake no-man's-land with enfilade fire, their sustained bursts—capable of over 600 rounds per minute—sweeping exposed advances along the linear front. In linear battles, artillery employs enfilade by aligning batteries to fire along enemy lines, inflicting devastation on dense formations as seen in historical field tactics where such positioning frequently arose. Modern machine gun employment continues this, with automatic weapons pushed to flanks to interlock fields of fire and achieve enfilade against advancing units.[13][14] Executing enfilade fire follows structured steps: first, identify the enemy's long axis through reconnaissance to determine the optimal engagement line; second, conduct flanking maneuvers to reposition assets perpendicular or aligned with that axis; third, initiate fire to suppress and disrupt, sustaining volume through interlocking sectors to erode enemy morale and cohesion. This sequence ensures the beaten zone—the elliptical area of impact—overlaps the target's length, amplifying effectiveness.[15][16] Variations in enfilade include direct (frontal) enfilade, where fire aligns end-on along the target's full length for maximum rake, and oblique enfilade, delivered at an angle other than perpendicular to introduce lateral spread while still following the axis. Flanking enfilade, a subset, engages from the side for close-range devastation. Enemies often counter by dispersing formations to reduce the effective long axis, prompting attackers to adapt with rapid shifts in position. Defilade positioning serves as a primary enemy response to evade such fire.[17][1]Defilade Positioning Strategies
Defilade positioning strategies emphasize the use of natural and artificial features to shield forces from enfilade fire, which occurs when enemy weapons rake a line of troops or positions from the flank. Terrain utilization begins with selecting reverse slopes, where defenders position on the rear side of a hill or ridge to avoid direct observation and plunging fire from higher ground. This tactic, outlined in U.S. Army doctrine, allows forces to remain concealed until the enemy crests the objective, enabling a sudden counterattack while minimizing exposure to long-range artillery or direct fire. Ditches, ravines, and urban structures such as building walls or debris piles serve as immediate cover in varied environments, providing low-profile protection that disrupts enemy lines of sight. For artificial defilade, units engineer berms or earthen revetments using available resources like bulldozers or manual labor to create protective mounds, particularly effective for static positions where natural cover is insufficient. Movement in defilade requires coordinated techniques to preserve cover during advances or repositioning. Hull-down positions are critical for armored vehicles, where the chassis is concealed behind a rise or obstacle, exposing only the turret for observation and fire, thereby reducing the target's silhouette and vulnerability to anti-tank weapons. This approach is standard in mechanized infantry tactics, allowing tanks to engage while limiting return fire opportunities. Bounding overwatch complements this by alternating the advance of elements: one team or vehicle holds a defilade position to provide suppressive fire and overwatch, while the other bounds forward to the next covered spot, such as a depression or wall, ensuring continuous protection against expected contact. At the unit level, defilade integrates into squad patrols and larger formations through disciplined fire team placements and fortification designs. In patrols, squads employ defilade by dispersing along reverse slopes or urban edges, with leaders assigning sectors that maintain mutual support without exposing flanks to enfilade. Fortifications, such as foxholes or sandbag barriers, are oriented to resist enfilade by angling walls and incorporating offsets, drawing from infantry manuals that stress interlocking fields of fire from concealed positions. This squad-level application scales to platoon defenses, where defilade enhances overall cohesion by allowing units to maneuver under cover. Despite these advantages, defilade positions have inherent limitations, particularly vulnerability to indirect fire from artillery or mortars, which can arc over terrain masks to strike concealed troops. Air observation also compromises defilade, as drones or aircraft can spot and direct precision strikes on otherwise hidden forces. Effective implementation thus demands thorough reconnaissance to verify defilade against potential enemy avenues, including elevated observation points, ensuring positions remain viable without over-reliance on assumed cover.Combined and Advanced Tactics
Enfilade–Defilade Integration
Enfilade and defilade principles are integrated in combined formations to create balanced tactics that exploit enemy vulnerabilities while minimizing exposure. In an L-shaped ambush, the long leg of the formation positions weapons to deliver enfilade fire along the enemy's expected route, maximizing the beaten zone's alignment with the target's long axis, while the short leg blocks escape routes; all elements are sited in defilade to shield against return fire. This setup allows the assault element to initiate with enfilade from covered positions, transitioning to close assault upon enemy disruption. Trench systems employ mutual support by arranging positions where one sector provides enfilade fire to cover adjacent defilade areas, ensuring overlapping fields that protect against penetration. Machine guns, for instance, are emplaced to produce flanking enfilade along final protective lines while using terrain for defilade, allowing sustained fire without exposing crews to direct observation or counterfire. Defensive integrations position enfilading fields of fire from protected defilade cover to channel and engage attackers, as seen in World War II bunkers where concrete emplacements shielded gunners delivering raking enfilade on approaches. Such setups use natural or constructed obstacles to force enemies into enfiladed kill zones while defenders remain masked from frontal assaults. Offensive uses sequence a defilade approach to mask movement until the final assault, followed by enfilade exploitation to rake disrupted enemy lines. Attack positions are selected in defilade for the approach, enabling forces to close undetected before shifting to enfilade fire from elevated or offset positions to suppress and flank. Doctrinal principles emphasize balancing aggression through enfilade's lethality with protection via defilade to enhance survivability and overall effectiveness. This integration prioritizes mutual support and depth, where enfilade maximizes casualties on exposed axes while defilade preserves combat power for counteraction or pursuit.Modern Adaptations
In the 20th century, enfilade and defilade tactics evolved significantly amid industrialized warfare, with notable applications in major conflicts. During the Vietnam War, U.S. Marine and Army units frequently utilized L-shaped ambushes to achieve enfilading fire, positioning the short leg of the "L" for direct assault and the long leg for flanking engagement along the enemy's line of movement, thereby maximizing casualties on Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army columns. This technique combined elements of linear and point ambushes for greater lethality in dense jungle terrain. In World War II's Normandy campaign, the bocage landscape's dense hedgerows offered German forces natural defilade, enabling them to conceal infantry and anti-tank teams for devastating enfilade ambushes on advancing Allied armored columns, which slowed the U.S. advance and inflicted heavy losses until specialized tactics like hedgerow cutters were improvised. Contemporary applications of these concepts persist in urban and vehicular contexts, particularly in post-9/11 conflicts. In urban warfare during the Iraq and Afghanistan campaigns, insurgents and coalition forces alike leveraged building structures for defilade; for instance, multi-story mud-brick compounds in Afghan villages created deep vertical cover, allowing defenders to maneuver unseen and complicating direct assaults, while U.S. forces used adjacent structures to mask movements and avoid enfilade from rooftops. Vehicle tactics have also adapted, with tanks employing hull-down positions—where the hull is concealed behind terrain crests, exposing only the turret—to achieve defilade against enemy anti-tank weapons, a standard practice in mechanized operations to minimize vulnerability while maintaining offensive fire capability. Technological advancements have both enhanced and challenged these tactics. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or drones, enable enfilade spotting by providing overhead reconnaissance to identify enemy lines of advance or concealed positions, as demonstrated by U.S. Marines using small drones to observe targets and direct machine-gun fire from defilade positions during training exercises. However, the proliferation of drones and advanced sensors has reduced the effectiveness of traditional defilade by penetrating terrain cover; for example, programmable ammunition designed for counter-defilade engagements can now target hidden foes in urban or elevated cover, adapting to drone-detected threats. Precision-guided munitions (PGMs) further support targeted enfilade by allowing artillery or air-delivered ordnance to follow enemy movement axes with minimal collateral damage, as seen in their integration into fire support for linear engagements. Current U.S. military doctrine reflects these adaptations, particularly in asymmetric warfare where weaker forces exploit defilade in populated areas to offset technological disparities. The U.S. Army's ATP 3-21.8, Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad (as of 2024), emphasizes terrain analysis to avoid enfilade exposure through bounding overwatch and mutual support, while stressing the platoon's ability to deliver enfilading and grazing fires in offensive maneuvers.[18] In asymmetric contexts, such as counterinsurgency operations, doctrine advocates integrated defilade use—combining urban cover with electronic warfare—to deny enemies enfilade opportunities, as insurgents in Iraq adapted building defilade for improvised explosive device ambushes against patrols. More recently, in the Russo-Ukrainian War (2022–2025), both sides have employed extensive trench networks for defilade against artillery and drones, while FPV (first-person view) drones facilitate real-time enfilade targeting of exposed movements along linear fronts like those near Pokrovsk.[19]References
- https://www.[dictionary.com](/page/Dictionary.com)/browse/enfilade