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Galeras (Urcunina among the 16th-century indigenous people) is an Andean stratovolcano in the Colombian department of Nariño, near the departmental capital Pasto. Its summit rises 4,276 metres (14,029 ft) above sea level. It has erupted frequently since the Spanish conquest, with its first historical eruption being recorded on December 7, 1580.[2] A 1993 eruption killed nine people, including six scientists who had descended into the volcano's crater to sample gases and take gravity measurements in an attempt to be able to predict future eruptions.[3] It is currently the most active volcano in Colombia.

Key Information

Geological history

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Major volcanoes in Colombia

Galeras has been an active volcano for at least a million years, with andesite as the dominant product.[1] Two major caldera-forming eruptions have occurred, the first about 560,000 years ago in an eruption which expelled about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of material. The second some time between 40,000 and 150,000 years ago, in a smaller but still sizable eruption of 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) of material. Subsequently, part of the caldera wall has collapsed, possibly due to instabilities caused by hydrothermal activity, and later eruptions have built up a smaller cone inside the now horseshoe-shaped caldera.

In light of its violent eruptive history and proximity to the 450,000 people of Pasto, Galeras was designated a Decade Volcano in 1991, identifying it as a target for detailed study as part of the United Nations' International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.

Eruptive history

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Galeras is considered the most active volcano in Colombia, followed by Nevado del Ruiz. Its earliest activity during the Holocene has been dated at 7050 BC ± 1000 years through radiocarbon dating. Other eruptions similar to this event include those in 3150 BC ± 200 years, 2580 BC ± 500 years, 1160 BC ± 300 years, 490 BC ± 100 years, and in 890 AD ± 200 years. Typically these eruptions consist of a central vent explosion, conducive to an explosive eruption causing pyroclastic flows and/or lahars. Eruptions in more recent times, which have been recorded consist of those in 1535, December 1580, July 1616, 1641, 1670, 1754, November 1796, June 1823, October 1828, 1834, October 1865, July 1889, 1891, December 1923, October 1924, October 1932, February 1936, July 1947, January 1950, 1974, February 1989, January 1990, January 1993, March 2000, June 2002, July 2004, November 2005, October 2007, January 2008, February 2009, March 2009, January 2010, and August 2010. Reported incidents with no official proof occurred in 1836, 1930, 1933, and 1973.[1]

1993 eruption

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Further information: Galeras tragedy

Galeras became active again in 1988 after 10 years of dormancy.

A Decade Volcano conference in the city of Pasto, in 1993, ended in disaster when several of the scientists present mounted an impromptu expedition on 14 January to the crater of Galeras. An eruption occurred unexpectedly while they were at the summit, resulting in the deaths of six scientists and three tourists.[4]

Elements in the media made the event controversial by suggesting the expedition leader, geologist Stanley Williams, who survived along with four others, had ignored safety procedures. A prediction had been made three days before the eruption based on B-Type activity seen on a seismograph. Seismic B-types had been used successfully to predict eruptions on other volcanoes. However, the prediction was based simply on the one seismographic printout viewed in the light of previous history of Galeras, without any additional scientific measurements showing any serious activity within the volcano.[citation needed]

21st-century activity

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The Galeras Volcano, aerial image by NASA showing its activity. City of Pasto on the right.
Space radar image of Galeras Volcano. City of Pasto at bottom

Activity at a low level has continued at Galeras, with small explosions occasionally dusting nearby villages and towns with ash. The volcano has continued to be well-studied, and predictions of eruptions at the volcano have improved. One phenomenon, which seems to be a reliable precursor to eruptive activity, is a low-frequency seismic event known as a tornillo event. These have occurred before about four-fifths of the explosions at Galeras, and the number of tornillo events recorded before an eruption is also correlated with the size of the ensuing eruption.

More than 100 minor tremors were felt during a major eruption in April 2002, although no damage or injury was reported. An eruption in November 2005 forced an evacuation of the dangerous area surrounding the volcano, and about 9,400 people from nearby villages (most of them farmers) were ordered to leave. The city of Pasto, about 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) from the volcano, was blanketed by a layer of ash after the volcanic explosion, forcing the residents to don goggles and face masks.

Numerous minor tremors and ash emissions since March 2006 culminated on 12 July 2006 in three explosive eruptions, producing an ash and gas column reaching an altitude of 8 kilometres (5.0 mi). Rock falls and pyroclastic flows were reported from towns as distant as Consacá, 11.4 kilometres (7.1 mi) west of the main crater. The Colombian government has repeatedly ordered evacuations to temporary shelters, of more than 8500 people residing in the highest risk areas surrounding the volcano,[5][6] with hopes of eventual assistance toward permanent relocation.[7]

On January 17, 2008, the volcano erupted around 20:06 (local) (01:06 UTC). There were no immediate reports of injuries or serious property damage. Later the experts confirmed partial damage in the national and local TV towers.[8][9]

Then, on February 14, 2009, the volcano erupted around 19:10 (local) (00:10 UTC).[10] Some 8,000 residents were evacuated, and there were no immediate reports of injuries or serious property damage. As in 2005, the city of Pasto was blanketed by a layer of ash after the volcanic explosion (due to the direction of the wind). The local authorities ordered two water treatment plants near Galeras to shut down.[11]

On March 13, 2009, Galeras erupted twice at around 15:55 and 17:00 (local time). Ash fell on Pasto and some other towns near the volcano, where an evacuation was ordered but reportedly ignored. No injuries or damage were reported.[12]

2010 eruption

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The volcano erupted on January 3, 2010, forcing the evacuation of 8,000 people.[13] This was the 10th such eruption of the volcano in the preceding 12 months, and the first of 2010. Colombian authorities also stated that it could remain volatile in the weeks to come.

Galeras erupted again on August 25, 2010 with an ash plume visible in the air. The eruption, which was described as non-explosive, caused authorities to raise an alert for neighbouring towns.[14]

This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project.

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  • Galeras Volcano shrouded in cloud and rare snow, overlooking the city of Pasto
    Galeras Volcano shrouded in cloud and rare snow, overlooking the city of Pasto

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Galeras

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Galeras is a prominent situated in southwestern , approximately 8 kilometers west-northwest of the city of Pasto in the , with its summit reaching an elevation of 4,276 meters above . As one of 's most frequently active , it forms part of the and features a breached summit enclosing a small active cone that has produced numerous explosive eruptions since at least the . The volcano's geological structure includes a central pyroclastic cone with two small summit craters, known as Chavas and El Paisita, located on the northern and western rims, respectively, from which steam plumes are often visible. Galeras has recorded over 20 eruptions in historic times, characterized by ash emissions, pyroclastic flows, and lahars, with notable events including a deadly 1993 explosion that killed volcanologists monitoring the site and intermittent ash-plume activity from 2010 to 2014. Its andesitic composition and proximity to populated areas—placing around 400,000 within the potential hazard zone—underscore the importance of ongoing monitoring by the Colombian Geological Service (SGC). As the southernmost Colombian volcano with well-documented historic activity, Galeras has been in near-continuous unrest for centuries, with seismic patterns like "tornillo" signals often preceding eruptions, and its volcanic complex spans about 1 million years of activity. As of November 2025, monitoring indicates persistent steam emissions and frequent volcanic seismicity (e.g., over 170 earthquakes in late October), but no significant ash production since early 2014, with the volcano maintained at a moderate (Yellow) alert level and low gas output.

Location and Description

Geographical Position

Galeras volcano is situated in the southwestern Colombian Andes, within the , approximately 8 km west-northwest of the city of Pasto, the departmental capital. This proximity places the volcano in a densely populated region, with Pasto serving as a major urban center of over 400,000 residents (as of 2023) at the base of the Andean slopes. The volcano's location underscores its significance to local communities, as it dominates the skyline and influences and . The precise coordinates of Galeras are 1.22°N, 77.37°W, with its summit reaching an elevation of 4,276 m (14,029 ft) above . As part of the , specifically the Northern Volcanic Zone, Galeras lies near the Colombia-Ecuador border, contributing to the chain of active volcanoes formed along the subduction zone of the and South American plates. The surrounding terrain consists of a high plateau in the Andean , characterized by rugged mountainous landscapes and elevated valleys that facilitate drainage patterns. The volcano's flanks give rise to an extensive hydrographic network, including numerous streams and rivers such as the Pasto River, which originates from its upper basins and flows through the Pasto Valley below. This river system, encompassing around 125 streams and several larger waterways, supports the local and agricultural activities in the plateau region, while highlighting the volcano's role in shaping the area's .

Physical Characteristics

Galeras is a characterized by a prominent central rising approximately 150 m above the of its summit , which measures about 5 km in diameter and is breached to the west. The volcano's base spans roughly 20 km at its foundation, with the summit reaching an elevation of 4,276 m. This morphology reflects a classic stratovolcanic edifice built through alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits, featuring multiple parasitic cones and lava domes scattered along its flanks. The main active summit crater is an irregularly shaped depression approximately 250–320 m wide and up to 250 m deep, hosting vigorous fumarolic activity that emits , gases, and deposits. Hot springs and hydrothermal features are also evident on the lower flanks, particularly along the western breach, indicating ongoing subsurface fluid circulation. These elements contribute to the 's dynamic surface expression, with the walls exhibiting cave-like entrances and condensed incrustations from persistent . The volcanic edifice is predominantly composed of andesitic to dacitic lavas and pyroclastic materials, with minor variations including basaltic andesites in some flank deposits. This intermediate composition underpins the volcano's history of explosive and effusive activity, forming a rugged of steep slopes and radial drainage patterns. The breached , formed around 560,000 years ago, exposes older pyroclastic sequences and influences the current structural asymmetry.

Geological Background

Tectonic Setting

Galeras volcano is situated in the Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ) of the , a segment of the Andean volcanic arc extending from southern to northern , where volcanic activity is primarily driven by the ongoing of the oceanic Nazca Plate beneath the continental South American Plate. This convergent margin forms part of the broader Peru-Chile Trench system, with the Nazca Plate moving eastward relative to at an average rate of approximately 8 cm per year, as determined from plate motion models based on GPS and data. The geometry in the region features a dip angle of about 30–40 degrees for the Nazca Plate beneath southwestern , facilitating the release of volatiles that trigger in the overlying mantle. This process is further influenced by the Romeral Fault System, a major strike-slip fault zone that parallels the subduction trench and accommodates lateral shear between the North Andean Block and the South American Plate, contributing to the tectonic complexity around Galeras. Regionally, Galeras forms part of a discontinuous chain of stratovolcanoes in the NVZ, including prominent examples such as to the north in and in , all linked to the same dynamics. The magma feeding Galeras originates from the of the subducted and the overlying mantle wedge, induced by fluids released during dehydration of the downgoing slab, resulting in the predominantly andesitic composition characteristic of arc volcanism in this setting. This hydrous melting process, occurring at depths of around 100–150 km, produces intermediate magmas that ascend through the thick (>25 km) beneath the , undergoing fractionation and interaction en route to the surface.

Formation and Evolution

The Galeras volcanic complex initiated its activity approximately 1.4 million years ago with the earliest stages, Cariaco and Pamba, characterized by basaltic-andesitic volcanism that contributed to the construction of early edifices within the complex. This initial phase involved the buildup of volcanic material over roughly 200,000 years, forming precursors to the main structures through effusive and explosive eruptions dominated by intermediate compositions. The complex's evolution reflects progressive vent migration eastward, leading to the development of key edifices such as Coba Negra around 1.1 million years ago. A major caldera collapse occurred approximately 560,000 years ago following this prolonged buildup, marking a pivotal event in the volcano's history with the ejection of about 16 km³ of pyroclastic material and the formation of the Coba Negra caldera, roughly 5 km in diameter and centered 5 km west of the current summit. This collapse partially destroyed the earlier edifice, which had an estimated volume of around 70 km³, and was associated with high-silica andesitic to dacitic eruptions. The event reshaped the landscape, leaving a scar that influenced subsequent growth phases. In the post-caldera period, renewed cone-building activity commenced with predominantly dacitic eruptions, leading to multiple growth stages over the last 400,000 years, including the Jenoy edifice (dated to 364,000–9,000 years ago, including formation around 4 km in diameter) and later structures like Urcunina and the modern Galeras cone. These phases involved layered deposits of andesitic lavas and pyroclastics, gradually reconstructing the volcanic within and around the older , as detailed in an updated stratigraphic framework identifying 26 lithostratigraphic units and four major unconformities. More recently, approximately 7,500–900 years ago, a sector collapse event affected the Urcunina edifice, generating debris avalanches primarily on the eastern flank and contributing to the current amphitheater-like morphology of the summit area. This instability, linked to hydrothermal alteration, truncated earlier lava flows and facilitated the emplacement of the active central cone.

Eruptive History

Prehistoric Activity

Geological evidence from layers and reveals eruptive activity at Galeras volcano over the past 50,000 years. These eruptions are documented through stratigraphic sections and 14C ages, indicating a pattern of activity interspersed with effusive events, primarily andesitic in composition. The deposits, including pyroclastic flows and fallouts, provide a record of the volcano's prehistoric behavior prior to European contact. A notable occurred in the , producing voluminous ash columns and widespread dispersal. This event exemplifies the volcano's capacity for high-magnitude explosions, with fine ash layers preserved in regional sediments. Lava flows dated to about 12.8 ka were truncated by a sector around 8–10 ka. These flows highlight recurrent instability in the volcanic edifice. Prehistoric deposits at Galeras include widespread ash falls that reached as far as modern-day , demonstrating the volcano's influence on regional atmospheric and sedimentary records. Lahars and debris flows, triggered by heavy rainfall on unconsolidated , channeled through ancient drainages, altering local landscapes and depositing thick sequences in low-lying areas. In the , large events occurred at intervals of 500–2,000 years, underscoring a quasi-periodic of explosive activity that shaped the volcano's morphology.

Historical Eruptions (1535–1992)

The first recorded eruption of Galeras occurred on December 7, 1580, producing plumes and triggering lahars that impacted the nearby city of Pasto. This event marked the onset of documented activity during the Spanish colonial period, with eyewitness accounts describing explosive emissions and associated flooding along river valleys. Since 1535, Galeras has experienced over 20 eruptions, characterized by a range of styles including explosions, emissions, and effusive activity. Notable examples include a explosion in 1823 that generated and without significant magmatic involvement, lava flows during the 1880s that advanced several kilometers down the flanks, and dome extrusion around 1930 that built a viscous andesitic mass within the summit crater. These events typically caused localized and disrupted in the Pasto region, though fatalities were rare prior to the mid-20th century. In the , activity intensified with increased during the and , signaling movement beneath the . This period culminated in minor explosions from 1978 to 1988, involving small Vulcanian blasts that ejected blocks and to heights of several kilometers. Such highlighted Galeras's restless nature, with seismic swarms often preceding surface unrest. Overall, historical eruptions from 1535 to 1992 were predominantly phreatomagmatic and Vulcanian in style, driven by interactions between rising and or the explosive fragmentation of viscous . plumes rarely exceeded 10 km in height, limiting widespread dispersal but posing recurrent threats to local infrastructure and water supplies through lahars and fallout. These patterns echo prehistoric eruption styles evidenced by proximal pyroclastic deposits.

Major 20th- and 21st-Century Events

The most significant 20th-century eruption at Galeras occurred on , 1936, when a vigorous explosive event produced pyroclastic flows that descended the northeastern flank, visible from the city of Pasto approximately 10 km to the east. This VEI 3 eruption involved the ejection of ballistic blocks and , modifying the summit crater morphology and depositing over a wide area, though no casualties were reported. The event highlighted Galeras's capacity for sudden explosive activity, contrasting with earlier minor historical eruptions documented from the 16th to 19th centuries. Activity escalated in the late , culminating in the deadly eruption of , 1993, preceded by six months of increasing and minor ground deformation. From July 1992, long-period earthquakes averaged fewer than 10 per day by December, while volcano-tectonic events occurred in swarms up to 20 per day, and electronic tiltmeters recorded subtle inflation at one station and at another. On , a sudden Vulcanian explosion at 1341 lasted 15 minutes, excavating about 30,000 m³ of material and generating a plume to 4 km altitude, accompanied by a minor or surge down the southeastern wall that killed six volcanologists and three (total nine), while injuring six others during field work. This VEI 2 event was driven by rapid pressure buildup and release in the shallow hydrothermal overlying the magmatic conduit, leading to intense post-eruption with 611 long-period events in the following 12 hours. Entering the , precursors to major unrest included growth from 2006 to 2009, accompanied by elevated that prompted evacuations of thousands in July 2006. Seismic data and satellite observations confirmed dome beginning in January 2006, with steady rates building volume in the summit crater amid hybrid earthquakes and gas emissions. This phase, influenced by interactions between ascending and the overlying hydrothermal system, set the stage for subsequent explosive activity without a full dome collapse. A notable 21st-century eruption occurred on January 2, , when an explosive event detected seismically prompted the alert level to be raised to , leading to the evacuation of approximately 8,000 from surrounding areas. The eruption produced an ash column rising to 12 km altitude, drifting westward and northwestward, with incandescent blocks ejected 3.2-3.5 km from the summit, igniting fires on the northern flank. Minor pyroclastic activity and ashfall extended up to 110 km away, marking this VEI 2 event as a phreatomagmatic release tied to pressurized fluids in the hydrothermal system, with no reported fatalities.

Recent Activity and Monitoring

Post-2010 Developments

Following the 2010 eruption, Galeras exhibited frequent emissions accompanied by tornillo-type earthquakes from 2011 to 2015, signaling ongoing hydrothermal and magmatic unrest. plumes rose intermittently, reaching heights of up to 2 km above the during 2012–2013, with notable events on 13 May 2012 and 22 January 2013 depositing fine in nearby areas such as Sandona and Genoy. These emissions were often linked to low-level , including volcano-tectonic swarms in April, May, and September 2012. Between 2016 and 2020, activity shifted toward elevated (SO₂) emissions averaging 12.1 kg/s in March 2017, indicative of enhanced . Thermal increases observed from April 2017 suggested reactivation of shallow transport following the 2014 event. Steam-and-gas plumes persisted without significant particulate output. As of November 2025, from 2021 to 2025, Galeras has maintained persistent without major eruptions, at yellow alert levels due to elevated unrest. In 2025 alone, the volcano registered 43 earthquakes exceeding magnitude 2.0, with the largest reaching M 3.6, concentrated at shallow depths. Gas-and-steam plumes continued to rise from the , accompanied by anomalies at fumaroles, reflecting sustained fluid circulation. Overall trends post-2010 include recurrent hybrid seismic swarms, such as those in October 2012, interpreted as indicators of fluid movement within the hydrothermal . (InSAR) detected ground inflation on the western flank from April 2012 to May 2015, with line-of-sight displacements up to 2.96 cm, suggesting pressurization at depth.

Surveillance and Research

The Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Pasto (OVSP), operated by the Colombian Geological Service (SGC) since its establishment in following the volcano's reactivation, serves as the primary institution for continuous surveillance of Galeras. International collaborations, notably with the (USGS), have bolstered these efforts through joint projects on instrumentation and data analysis. The SGC's monitoring infrastructure encompasses a seismic network comprising approximately 10 telemetered stations, including short-period and broad-band sensors, to capture volcano-tectonic earthquakes and long-period events associated with fluid movement. Ground deformation is tracked via GPS stations that detect subtle changes indicative of magmatic intrusion or unrest. Geochemical observations include periodic gas sampling, with (SO₂) flux measurements often reaching up to 1,000 tons per day during elevated activity phases. Visual and monitoring is supported by webcams for real-time imagery of emissions and plumes, complemented by data from the MODIS instrument to identify anomalies. Scientific research at Galeras emphasizes the analysis of long-period seismic events, which correlate with and pressurization in the conduit, enabling improved eruption forecasting models. Studies on the hydrothermal system model fluid circulation and gas accumulation, providing insights into the mechanisms driving Vulcanian explosions. Following the 1993 eruption, monitoring advancements included the development of a real-time alert system by the SGC, featuring color-coded levels—green for stable conditions, yellow for observed changes, orange for probable eruption within days to weeks, and red for ongoing or imminent major activity—to facilitate timely public warnings. These enhancements, integrated with expanded geophysical networks, have strengthened volcano early warning protocols.

Hazards and Impacts

Volcanic Risks

Galeras volcano poses significant primary hazards due to its history of explosive Vulcanian eruptions, which can generate pyroclastic flows extending 5–10 km from the crater, primarily along drainages like the Río Azufral and Quebrada Genoy-Guaico. These fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and rock fragments are confined to high-hazard zones but can devastate rural areas within this radius. Ash fall represents another key threat, with plumes potentially dispersing up to 100 km downwind, leading to accumulations exceeding 10 cm near the volcano and affecting agriculture, infrastructure, and air quality in broader regions. Lahars, or volcanic mudflows, form along major drainages such as the Río Guáitara and Pasto rivers, traveling over 35 km and endangering populated valleys. Secondary risks include emissions of volcanic gases, primarily (CO₂) and (H₂S), alongside (SO₂), which can accumulate in low-lying areas and cause respiratory irritation, asphyxiation, and long-term health issues such as reduced lung function, particularly among vulnerable populations near the volcano. Seismic activity associated with unrest produces volcano-tectonic earthquakes reaching magnitudes up to M4, which may trigger landslides or damage structures within 10 km of the summit. As of November 2025, persistent low-level continues, with earthquakes up to M 3.6 recorded, but no significant eruptions since 2014. Hazard zoning by the Servicio Geológico Colombiano (SGC) delineates high-risk areas within approximately 10 km of the crater, encompassing southern and eastern flanks, including rural settlements like La Florida and Genoy, as well as the urban center of Pasto, home to over 400,000 residents located 9 km east. These zones prioritize pyroclastic flows and lahars as the most immediate threats to life and property. Galeras exhibits high potential for unrest, with VEI 2 explosive events recurring approximately every 1–2 years during active periods, based on statistical modeling of the eruptive catalog since the .

Human and Environmental Consequences

The 1993 eruption of resulted in nine fatalities, including six volcanologists and three tourists killed by a sudden in the . Subsequent ashfall from various events has caused respiratory issues among residents in nearby Pasto, with chronic exposure to linked to reduced pulmonary function and increased stress in older adults. In 2010, authorities ordered the evacuation of thousands of residents near the following an that produced ash plumes, though compliance was limited and no injuries were reported. Ash emissions from Galeras have periodically disrupted , including ; during the prolonged eruptive episode from 2012 to 2014, ash plumes prompted volcanic ash advisories that affected flight operations at nearby airports such as in Pasto. Lahars and fallout have damaged agricultural sectors, particularly and dairy farms in surrounding valleys, rendering crops unproductive and contaminating supplies used for . The 2005 eruption, for instance, led to contamination of farmland and potable sources in villages on the volcano's northwestern flank. Pyroclastic flows from historical eruptions have caused localized by incinerating vegetation across flanks, particularly on the northern and eastern sides where deposits are prevalent. , resulting from emissions, has irritated eyes among locals and damaged vegetation on the northern flank, while also contaminating water sources with elevated acidity. In the ecosystems surrounding Galeras, ash deposition and eruptive disturbances have contributed to by smothering fragile high-altitude vegetation and altering soil conditions critical for endemic species. Socioeconomic challenges include ongoing relocation efforts in La Florida, where over 8,000 residents live in a high-risk zone declared a in 2005, leading to resistance due to economic dependencies on local . Volcanic activity has also impacted , with areas around the frequently declared off-limits to visitors during heightened unrest, reducing income from in the Galeras and Fauna Sanctuary.

References

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