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Grivet[1]
Amora Gedel Park, Awasa, Ethiopia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cercopithecidae
Genus: Chlorocebus
Species:
C. aethiops
Binomial name
Chlorocebus aethiops
Grivet range
Female in Ethiopia

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is an Old World monkey with long white tufts of hair along the sides of its face. Some authorities consider this and all of the members of the genus Chlorocebus to be a single species, Cercopithecus aethiops.[1] As here defined, the grivet is restricted to Ethiopia, Sudan, Djibouti, and Eritrea.[2] In the southern part of its range, it comes into contact with the closely related vervet monkey (C. pygerythrus) and Bale Mountains vervet (C. djamdjamensis).[4] Hybridization between them is possible, and may present a threat to the vulnerable Bale Mountains vervet.[4] Unlike that species, the grivet is common and rated as least concern by the IUCN.[2]

Physical description

[edit]

The grivet's facial skin, hands, and feet are black. The face has a white line above the eyes. It has long, white whiskers on the cheeks. The fur on the back has an olive color, while the front is white. The skin on the stomach has a blue tint. The fur has a bristly feel. The approximate head and body length for males is 49 cm (19 in) and 42.6 cm (16.8 in) for females.[5] The length of the tail for males is about 30–50 cm (12–20 in).[6] The body mass ranges from 3.4 to 8.0 kg (7.5 to 17.6 lb), with females at the smaller end of the scale.[5]

Habitat and distribution

[edit]

The main habitat of the grivet is savanna woodlands.[2] Its range is Sudan east of the White Nile, Eritrea, and Ethiopia east to the Rift Valley.[1][7] It is also found in Djibouti.[2] The grivet needs to live around a source of water, especially during the dry season. It is able to adapt to many environments.[2]

Local and indigenous names

[edit]

In Tigrinya language: ወዓግ (wi'ag)[7]

Behavior

[edit]

The grivet is most active in the morning and early evening. It stays on the ground most of the day to eat, and at night it sleeps in trees. The grivet spends a lot of time grooming, playing, climbing, and play fighting; all of these things help to ensure its survival. Its eating habits consist of eating mostly fruits, vegetables, and sometimes small mammals, insects, and birds, making it an omnivore. It also scavenges for human food. It must drink water daily, especially in the dry seasons. It is one of few species that has multiple-male groups that are of moderate size. In the hierarchy of males, an individual shows his dominance by putting his tail in a stiff, upright position and strolling past lower-ranked males.[8] They travel in packs, and usually move on all fours or quadrupedally, except when using both hands for carrying, when they manage to walk and run quite comfortably on two legs. Groups can range from five to over 70.[5]

Females will have a limited number of mates, while males may have several. Swelling of the female's vulva alerts males as to when she is in estrus. Giving birth to one baby at a time is common, and gestation usually lasts 2-3 months. When the baby is born, the mother cleans the infant and bites off the umbilical cord. Young have pink faces and black hair. Around two months are needed for them to get their adult coats. The first few months, the infant stays very close to its mother, but after 6 months, the infant is weaned.[5]

Conservation

[edit]

Grivets are occasionally hunted as bushmeat. They are killed for either commercial or subsistence purposes. Although not endangered, they are threatened through destruction of habitat - forests. They are preyed on by large snakes, leopards, humans, and sometimes baboons.[9] Grivets may live for 13 years.[5]

Relationship with humans

[edit]

The grivet is one of five species of monkeys known to have been kept in ancient Egypt, the others being the hamadryas baboon, the olive baboon, the patas monkey, and the barbary macaque. Grivets were imported from the Land of Punt, as attested in paintings and in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor. They were sometimes traded as far afield as Assyria. They are rarer in representations than baboons, and unlike baboons, do not seem to have borne individual names.[10]

Grivets are depicted on Egyptian tombs as house pets and on leashes. In some depictions, they may symbolize male sexuality. Early Dynastic statuettes of grivets have been found in sanctuaries, where they may have been votive offerings to the baboon god. A grivet shooting a bow was an aspect of the invisible god Atum, and at Deltaic Babylon, a grivet was the town god represented by a statue in the temple.[10]

Since the 1960s, the grivet has been harvested on an industrial scale by humans for their kidneys, which are used in poliovirus and adenovirus vaccine production. In 1967, the Marburg virus in grivets caused the death of 31 vaccine manufacturers.[11] In the medical literature, the grivet and the green monkey are often confused. They are also used in medical research such as the testing of dengue vaccines as well as in the testing of human cosmetics.[12]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Grivet

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is a medium-sized species native to the savannas, scrublands, and riverine woodlands of northeastern , including , , , , and . It is characterized by its wiry, olive-gray fur, a black face with long white tufts along the cheeks, and a body length of 42–60 cm for males and 30–50 cm for females, with weights ranging from 3–6.4 kg. These are highly adaptable omnivores, feeding on fruits, leaves, , small vertebrates, and occasionally human crops, and they require proximity to sources for survival. Grivets live in stable, multi-male, multi-female troops of 10–70 individuals, exhibiting complex social behaviors including grooming, vocal alarms for predators, and hierarchical structures led by dominant males. They are diurnal and semi-terrestrial, spending much of their time foraging on the ground while retreating to trees for sleeping and predator avoidance, with males often dispersing between groups at maturity. occurs year-round, with females giving birth to a single offspring after a of 3–5 months; infants are weaned at around 6 months and reach between 3–5 years. In captivity, grivets can live up to 30 years, though wild lifespans average 10–15 years due to predation and environmental pressures. Although classified as Least Concern by the IUCN as of 2024 due to its wide distribution and large population, the grivet faces localized threats from , , and human-wildlife conflict, including crop raiding that leads to retaliatory killings. It is listed under Appendix II to regulate international trade.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Scientific classification

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order , family Cercopithecidae, genus , and species C. aethiops. Historically, it was synonymized under the genus Cercopithecus aethiops, reflecting earlier taxonomic groupings of monkeys, but molecular and morphological evidence has supported its placement in the distinct genus since the late . The nominate subspecies is C. a. aethiops, primarily distributed in and , distinguished from closely related forms such as the (C. pygerythrus) within the broader complex by differences in pelage patterns and geographic range. Other recognized subspecies of C. aethiops include C. a. matschiei (Ethiopian highland grivet), though their boundaries remain subject to revision based on genetic data. Taxonomic debates persist regarding the Chlorocebus group, with some authorities treating it as a single polytypic species (C. aethiops) encompassing multiple subspecies, while others recognize 5–6 distinct species based on post-2000 genetic studies demonstrating significant mitochondrial and nuclear divergence. These separations, including the elevation of the vervet to species status, are supported by analyses showing levels of genetic differentiation comparable to those between other recognized primate species. As part of the monkeys in the tribe (guenons), the lineage represents terrestrial forms that diverged from arboreal guenons around 7–8 million years ago, with most events within the occurring during a more recent radiation approximately 3 million years ago, as evidenced by molecular phylogenies and fossil records. This evolutionary context highlights adaptations to environments distinct from the forest-dwelling ancestors shared with other guenons.

Etymology and local names

The name "grivet" derives from the French term grivet, borrowed into English in the 19th century and of uncertain origin, though it was likely introduced by the French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire based on observations of African primates. The species was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 under the name Simia aethiops in his Systema Naturae, reflecting early taxonomic groupings of monkeys. Subsequent reclassifications moved it to the genus Cercopithecus and eventually to Chlorocebus in the modern system, distinguishing it from related species like the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus). The binomial nomenclature Chlorocebus aethiops breaks down etymologically as follows: Chlorocebus combines the Greek words chloros (green), referring to the monkey's yellowish-green dorsal fur, and kebos (a long-tailed monkey). The specific epithet aethiops originates from the Greek aithiops, meaning "Ethiopian" or "dark-faced," which alludes both to the species' primary range in Ethiopia and its black facial skin. This naming highlights the historical European focus on the monkey's geographic and phenotypic traits during early explorations of Africa. In indigenous languages of its range, the grivet is known by various local names that reflect cultural interactions with the species. In Tigrinya, spoken in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, it is called wi'ag (ወዓግ). In Sudan, a regional term is nasnas. These names often appear in local ecological and conflict studies, underscoring the grivet's role in human-wildlife dynamics across its savanna habitats. Historically, nomenclature for the grivet has been confused with that of the closely related vervet monkey due to overlapping appearances and distributions, leading to interchangeable use of terms like "African green monkey" or Cercopithecus aethiops in older literature before distinct species boundaries were clarified in the 20th century. This overlap persists in some regional contexts but has been resolved in contemporary taxonomy to emphasize genetic and morphological differences.

Physical characteristics

Body size and morphology

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is a medium-sized exhibiting moderate sexual size dimorphism, with adult males typically measuring 42–60 cm in head-body length, 46–76 cm in tail length, and weighing 3.1–6.4 kg. Adult females are smaller, with head-body lengths of 30–50 cm, tail lengths of 41–66 cm, and weights of 1.5–4.9 kg. These dimensions reflect adaptations to a semi-terrestrial lifestyle, where the species navigates both ground and arboreal environments. Morphologically, the grivet displays a slender, agile build with relatively long limbs that enable efficient quadrupedal movement across woodlands and gallery forests. The torso is shorter compared to more fully arboreal , enhancing terrestrial agility for and predator evasion. The is non-prehensile, functioning primarily as a counterbalance during locomotion rather than for grasping. The dental formula is 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3, consistent with other cercopithecids and suited to an omnivorous diet incorporating fruits, leaves, and insects. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in body size and robustness, with males generally larger and more muscular than females to support roles in territorial defense and mating competition. Males also possess elongated canine teeth, which are used for displays and agonistic interactions. In the wild, grivets have a lifespan of 11–13 years, though individuals may occasionally reach 17 years under favorable conditions. Juveniles attain adult body size by approximately 3–5 years of age, with females maturing slightly earlier than males.

Coloration and markings

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) exhibits a distinctive overall coloration that aids in its identification among other guenons, with the upper parts of the body displaying a grizzled olive-gray hue due to a mix of and yellow hair strands, while the underparts are yellowish-white with a subtle tint on the belly. The hands, feet, and tail tip are characteristically , providing against the lighter ventral and contributing to the species' visual profile in mixed forest environments. Facial features are particularly striking, featuring a sooty black face with a greenish tint on the upper portion from the intermingling of yellow and black hairs, accented by long white or pale yellow side-whiskers or tufts that extend from the cheeks and a continuous white brow-band linking the superciliary and suborbital regions. These elongated , often directed upward, form a prominent marking that frames the dark facial skin and enhances individual recognition within social groups. Variations in coloration occur with age and sex; juveniles initially possess pinkish faces that transition to the adult sooty black by around 12 weeks, resulting in duller overall tones and reduced contrast in fur patterns compared to adults. Adult males display brighter white whisker tufts and a vivid blue or greenish during the breeding season, intensifying the in markings for intraspecific signaling. These and pelage markings primarily serve adaptive roles in recognition and social cohesion among group members, facilitating communication in dense .

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is endemic to the , with its native range restricted to eastern and east of the , , , and . This distribution spans wooded savannas, woodlands, and forest-grassland mosaics, covering an altitudinal range from approximately 200 to 3,000 meters. The northernmost extent of the grivet's range occurs in , where populations are patchily distributed across eastern and central regions. Historically, the species extended farther north into southern , but its current northern limit is around 15°N, with no verified records beyond this boundary in recent decades. The overall range has remained confined to the , with no introduced populations established outside the native area. While the grivet's distribution is considered stable in terms of geographic extent, populations are increasingly fragmented due to habitat loss driven by and . In southern , the grivet's range overlaps with the (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), forming a hybrid zone with evidence of extensive interbreeding. Recent surveys in , conducted as part of ongoing monitoring efforts, have documented grivet presence at 44 sites across more than 22,000 km², with an average group size of 9.1 individuals, underscoring the ' persistence in this northern frontier despite fragmentation.

Habitat requirements

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) primarily inhabits woodlands, riverine forests, and gallery forests across its range in northeastern . These environments provide a mix of open grassy areas interspersed with trees, supporting the species' semi-arboreal lifestyle. Proximity to permanent water sources, such as rivers, lakes, or oases, is essential, with over 60% of observed groups located within 1,500 meters of riverbeds or water bodies to ensure access during dry seasons. Grivets occupy an altitudinal range from sea level to approximately 3,000 meters above , particularly in the and Eritrean escarpments, where habitat suitability varies with elevation and vegetation cover. The exhibits considerable adaptability to modified landscapes, thriving in semi-arid zones and along the fringes of agricultural fields amid ongoing , though it generally avoids dense, closed-canopy rainforests in favor of more open mosaics. Within these habitats, grivets utilize microhabitats that include ground-level open areas for movement and tall trees, such as acacia (Acacia spp.) and juniper (Juniperus procera), for arboreal resting and sleeping sites, reflecting their semi-terrestrial nature.

Behavior and ecology

Social structure and behavior

Grivets live in multi-male, multi-female troops typically ranging from 10 to 70 individuals, with an average size of around 25 members, where adult females outnumber males and form the stable core of the group through female philopatry and matrilineal kinship structures. Dominant males lead the troop, enforcing hierarchies through aggressive displays and controlling access to resources and mates, while subadult males often emigrate to other groups upon reaching maturity to avoid inbreeding and competition. Group cohesion is maintained via grooming and affiliative behaviors, which strengthen bonds particularly among related females, and troops defend territories against neighboring groups through vocal and physical confrontations. Communication among grivets is multifaceted, relying on vocalizations, facial expressions, and body postures to convey information and maintain . Vocal signals include distinct alarm calls for different predators, which prompt group members to adopt appropriate evasive behaviors. Softer grunts and chattering serve to coordinate foraging and reaffirm social ties, while intense screams accompany aggressive interactions. expressions, such as lip-smacking or raising, signal submission or affiliation, and tail postures—such as erect s during pacing—assert dominance in confrontations with subordinates or intruders. Grivets exhibit a diurnal activity pattern, emerging from sleeping trees at dawn to actively in the morning, resting or grooming during the midday heat, and resuming activity in the late afternoon before retiring to tall trees at night for safety. This bimodal pattern allocates roughly equal time to feeding, resting, and locomotion, with social interactions peaking during rest periods to reinforce group bonds. Troops travel terrestrially or arboreally in loose formations, with sentinels scanning for threats, and sleep sites are selected for their height and density to deter predators. Interspecific interactions vary by context; grivets show tolerance toward sympatric like colobus monkeys, occasionally sharing space without , but compete aggressively with larger such as olive baboons over food resources, leading to chases and vocal disputes at overlapping sites. Anti-predator strategies include rapid alarm calling to alert the group, followed by —where multiple individuals approach and harass the threat with screams, branch-waving, and stones—effectively deterring predators like leopards or pythons while minimizing individual risk through .

Diet and foraging

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops), an omnivorous , maintains a primarily folivorous-frugivorous diet consisting of leaves, fruits, seeds, and other materials, supplemented by , small vertebrates such as and , birds, eggs, and occasionally scavenged human food. In a 2023 study in northern Ethiopia's Batiero Church Forest, grivets consumed parts from 19 species across 11 families, with key foods including seeds and leaves from Acacia sieberiana and , alongside invertebrates like for added protein and fat. Grivets exhibit diurnal, ground-based foraging patterns that are highly opportunistic, allowing them to adapt to available resources throughout the day. They forage in troops of 15–20 individuals, scanning collectively for food sources while juveniles learn processing techniques by observing and mimicking adults, such as specific methods for handling fruits or extracting insects. Seasonal variations influence preferences, with a chi-square analysis in the Ethiopian study revealing significant shifts (X² = 77.192, df = 6, P < 0.001): seeds dominated in the early dry season (42.6% of diet) alongside leaves (34.5%), while the dry season saw increased consumption of roots (12.7%) and crops due to scarcity, though overall feeding activity remained consistent (33.3% early dry, 32.6% dry; P = 0.130). Nutritionally, grivets are adapted to process tough vegetation through microbial in an enlarged and colon, where diverse bacteria produce volatile fatty acids (e.g., 229 mmol/L in the ) to break down fibrous plant matter like , though only about 12% of gut isolates actively degrade . This supports energy extraction from low-quality foods, enabling survival in fragmented habitats with variable quality.

Reproduction

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) employs a polygynous , in which dominant males mate with multiple females in the , while females typically mate with a limited number of males. Breeding is seasonal, with activity peaking prior to the rainy season and births occurring during the rainy months from to in their East African range. lasts approximately 165 days, resulting in the birth of a single offspring. Infants are born with black fur and pink faces, weighing around 314–343 grams, and remain attached to the mother's belly for the first week of life. Maternal care is primary, with the mother providing nourishment and protection, though typically occurs at about 6 months when the young begin independently. by other group females supplements maternal efforts, aiding in infant carrying and grooming during the early stages. Females reach at 3 years of age, while males do so at 5–6 years; is up to 17 years in the wild and 32 years in captivity. The interbirth interval is 1–2 years, influenced by the survival of the previous offspring. is substantial, yet is high due to predation by leopards, lions, and eagles, with orphaned young facing particularly poor survival prospects. The at birth is near 1:1, reflecting typical patterns in the genus .

Conservation status

Population and threats

The grivet (Chlorocebus aethiops) is classified as Least Concern on the , with the most recent assessment conducted in 2024 indicating a decreasing population trend. Although widespread across its range in eastern , the total remains unknown due to fragmented habitats and challenges in comprehensive surveys. Data from Eritrean surveys conducted in 2001–2002 indicate low densities, with an average group size of 9.1 individuals across 44 detection sites, underscoring the species' patchy distribution. Primary threats to grivet populations stem from habitat loss driven by and , which reduce available forest and areas essential for their survival. Additional threats include with humans and for water resources and potential hybridization with other taxa. hunting further exacerbates declines, as grivets are targeted in rural regions for subsistence, contributing to localized reductions. Natural predation by leopards, snakes, baboons, and humans also impacts group sizes, particularly in areas with overlapping predator ranges. Human-wildlife conflicts have intensified, with studies from in 2021–2022 documenting increased crop raiding by grivets, leading to retaliatory killings and heightened persecution by local communities. Emerging risks include , which has caused population fluctuations through altered water availability and suitability in arid regions. Disease transmission poses additional concerns, highlighted by the historical association with outbreaks in 1967, where infected imported grivets led to human cases in .

Conservation measures

The grivet ( aethiops) is classified as Class B under the African Convention on the Conservation of and Natural Resources, which regulates and to ensure sustainable use across its range states. It is also listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (), restricting international commercial to prevent . In and , the receives protection within national parks, such as in , where habitat safeguards limit human encroachment and poaching activities like for . The also occurs in other protected areas including Alatish, Gambella, and Kafta Shiraro National Parks. Conservation actions for the grivet emphasize habitat management and conflict mitigation in its core range of and . Habitat restoration initiatives focus on reforesting degraded savannas and woodlands to bolster food resources and reduce reliance on agricultural crops, as demonstrated by community-managed forest projects in southern Ethiopia that integrate with habitat needs. programs, informed by 2022 perception studies in , promote tolerance through awareness campaigns on coexistence strategies, such as alternative livelihoods to minimize crop-raiding incidents. These efforts highlight the role of local involvement in reducing human-grivet conflicts without resorting to lethal measures. Research and monitoring efforts track grivet distribution and ecology, with surveys conducted in in 2001–2002 documenting presence in 44 sites across eastern and central regions to inform designations. In , a initiative around , conducted from 2017–2018, provided population assessments and habitat use data, aiding . No formal programs are prioritized for the , given its Least Concern status and adaptability. Future conservation requires updated IUCN assessments incorporating climate impact projections, such as shifts in arid habitats due to warming, to refine threat models. Integration with broader Chlorocebus genus initiatives is essential, particularly addressing taxonomic uncertainties and hybridization risks through collaborative research across range countries.

Interactions with humans

Historical and cultural significance

In ancient Egypt, grivet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), closely related to vervet monkeys, were commonly kept as pets by the elite, symbolizing wealth and status due to their exotic origins from regions south of the Nile. Depictions of these monkeys appear in tomb art as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE), often shown leashed or collared, playing under chairs, or interacting with human caretakers, as seen in the Tomb of Nefermaat and Atet at Meidum (4th Dynasty), where two vervet monkeys are illustrated on leashes engaging in playful activities with a boy. In the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), such scenes expanded to include monkeys harvesting dates or performing comic antics, as in the Tomb of Rekhmire at Thebes (18th Dynasty), highlighting their role as companions valued for entertainment and perceived intelligence. Faience amulets of standing grivets, dating to similar periods, were crafted as protective talismans, underscoring their symbolic association with agility and good fortune in daily life. During the colonial era, grivets from and surrounding areas were exported to and for zoos and early scientific collections, reflecting growing European interest in African fauna amid 19th-century exploration. German naturalist Eduard Rüppell, during his expeditions to in the and , described and collected grivet specimens, contributing to their classification as Cercopithecus aethiops (later aethiops) and popularizing them in zoological accounts. In the early , grivets played a role in biomedical research, particularly in development, prior to the 1967 Marburg virus outbreak linked to imported African green monkeys. During the , grivet and vervet monkeys were utilized in and potency testing for oral poliovirus s (OPV), leveraging their sensitivity to strains for comparative neurovirulence assessments against rhesus monkeys. For instance, Iranian vaccine production facilities employed grivets for of OPV batches before distribution, confirming and through intracerebral tests. This use established grivets as a key non-human primate model in early efforts, though primarily in supportive rather than primary propagation roles.

Modern conflicts and uses

Grivet monkeys ( aethiops) have been utilized in biomedical , particularly in , due to their susceptibility to certain pathogens. In 2012, researchers tested three novel 2 vaccine candidates (DV2ΔGVII, DV2G460P, and DV2ΔLIG) in groups of four aethiops monkeys each, administering a single dose without boosters; the vaccines induced neutralizing antibodies (700–900 PRNT50 units for two candidates) and reduced duration by at least two days, demonstrating their , , and in this model. A significant historical incident occurred in 1967 when an outbreak of in and , , affected 31 people who handled imported African green monkeys ( spp.), resulting in seven deaths; the virus originated from infected monkeys shipped from , prompting strict international regulations and bans on importing non- from to for purposes. In agricultural settings, grivet monkeys are major pests, frequently raiding crops in regions like and , which intensifies human-wildlife conflicts amid growing monkey populations and habitat overlap. A 2021–2022 study in Yegof National Forest Priority Area, South Wollo, , found that grivets caused 27% damage to and 20% to crops through raiding, driven by agricultural encroachment, loss, and food shortages, posing threats to local food security and leading to retaliatory killings. Similarly, in Wof-Washa Natural State , , grivets were identified as the primary crop foragers (47.6% of reports) on , , and , with conflicts worsening due to farmland proximity to forests and perceived population increases from degradation. These interactions have escalated in and since the early , as expanding human settlements encroach on grivet habitats, amplifying crop losses and negative community attitudes toward conservation. A 2025 study in southwestern further highlighted how loss and degradation intensify human-grivet conflicts by disrupting habitats and increasing competition for resources, emphasizing the need for enhanced strategies. Grivets occasionally enter the illegal pet trade, though this remains limited compared to other primates. In 2021, Ethiopian authorities confiscated four wild-caught grivet monkeys intended for the pet market, highlighting sporadic illegal captures and sales that contribute to population declines and welfare issues. opportunities for observing grivets are minimal but exist in protected areas like in , where they can be viewed in natural habitats near rivers, though such activities do not significantly drive conservation funding or . To address conflicts, communities in employ non-lethal deterrents such as human guarding (used by 51.3% of farmers) and dogs to protect fields from grivet raids. Fences and barriers have proven effective in reducing foraging by similar when combined with alarms and repellents, decreasing raiding incidents in trial areas. programs, including awareness campaigns on sustainable and promotion of unpalatable , aim to foster tolerance; 2022 perception surveys in Wof-Washa revealed that 42.5% of respondents linked conflicts to issues and supported initiatives, though many still favored relocation (56.3%) over deterrence.

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