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Assam macaque
Assam macaque
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Assam macaque
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Family: Cercopithecidae
Genus: Macaca
Species:
M. assamensis[1]
Binomial name
Macaca assamensis[1]
Assam macaque range
M. a. pelops in Nagarjun Forest, Kathmandu, Nepal

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) or Assamese macaque is a macaque of the Old World monkey family native to South and Southeast Asia. Since 2008, it has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, as it is experiencing significant declines due to poaching, habitat degradation, and fragmentation.[2]

Characteristics

[edit]

The Assam macaque has a yellowish-grey to dark brown pelage. The facial skin is dark brownish to purplish. The head has a dark fringe of hair on the cheeks directed backwards to the ears. The hair on the crown is parted in the middle. The shoulders, head and arms tend to be paler than the hindquarters, which are greyish. The tail is well-haired and short. Head-to-body-length measures 51 to 73.5 cm (20.1 to 28.9 in), and the tail is 15 to 30 cm (5.9 to 11.8 in) long. Adult weight is 5 to 10 kg (11 to 22 lb).[3]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Assam macaques in Shanghai Zoo

In Nepal, the Assam macaque occurs east of the Kali Gandaki river at elevations of 200–1,800 m (660–5,910 ft).[4] In northeastern India, it lives in tropical and subtropical semievergreen forests, dry deciduous and montane forests up to elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft).[5] In Laos and Vietnam, it prefers elevations above 500 m (1,600 ft). It usually inhabits hilly areas above 1,000 m (3,300 ft), but in the wetter east it also occurs in the lowlands below this elevation. In limestone karst forests, it also occurs at lower elevations.[2]

Ecology and behaviour

[edit]

Assam macaques are diurnal, and at times both arboreal and terrestrial. They are omnivorous and feed on fruits, leaves, invertebrates and cereals.[2] In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, 15 groups were recorded in 2002 comprising 209 individuals. The population had a group density of 1.11 individuals per 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi), and an average group size of 13.93 individuals.[6] During a survey in Nepal's Langtang National Park in 2007, a total of 213 Assamese macaques were encountered in 9 groups in the study area of 113 km2 (44 sq mi). Troop sizes varied between 13 and 35 individuals, with a mean troop size of 23.66 individuals, and comprised 31% adult females, 16% adult males, and their young of various ages. They preferred maize kernals, followed by potato tubers, but also raided fields with wheat, buckwheat, and millet.[7]

Threats

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The threats to this species' habitat include selective logging and various forms of anthropogenic development and activities, alien invasives, hunting and trapping for sport, medicine, food, and the pet trade. Additionally, hybridization with adjacent species poses a threat to some populations.[8]

Conservation

[edit]

Macaca assamensis is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in all countries of occurrence. For the populations in India, the species is listed under Schedule II, part I of the Indian Wildlife Act.[6]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Assam macaque

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is a medium-sized species in the family Cercopithecidae, characterized by its yellowish-grey to dark brown pelage, dark brownish to purplish facial skin, and a short, well-haired tail measuring 15–30 cm in length. Adults exhibit , with males reaching head-to-body lengths of 51–73.5 cm and weights of 10–14.5 kg, while females are smaller at 51–59 cm and 8–12 kg. Native to South and , this arboreal inhabits dense primary forests, including tropical and subtropical semievergreen, dry deciduous, and montane types, typically at elevations from 200 to 4,000 m, though it avoids secondary or highly disturbed habitats. The species ranges across Bangladesh, Bhutan, southwestern China (including Tibet, Yunnan, Guangxi, and Guizhou), northeastern and northwestern India, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northwestern Thailand, and northern Vietnam, with two recognized subspecies: M. a. assamensis (eastern form) and M. a. pelops (western form), separated by the Brahmaputra River. Assam macaques live in matrilineal, multi-female/multi-male social groups of 10–50 individuals, characterized by complex dominance hierarchies and diurnal activity patterns, spending the majority of their time (up to 94%) in trees for foraging, resting, and social interactions. Their diet is omnivorous, primarily consisting of leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, bark, and insects, with seasonal variations in feeding peaking in autumn; they also opportunistically consume agricultural crops near human settlements. Reproduction is seasonal, with breeding occurring from to and births concentrated in April to June following a period of approximately 164–165 days; females typically reach at around 5 years and produce a single offspring weighing about 400 g, with interbirth intervals averaging 14–23 months and low (around 6.9%). Despite no precise global population estimate, the is declining due to ongoing threats, and it is classified as Near Threatened on the (as of 2020), with suspected reductions of 20–30% over three generations from habitat degradation (via logging, agriculture, and development) and hunting for , , the pet trade, and crop protection. Conservation efforts include protection under Appendix II and national laws in range countries, though hybridization with sympatric poses an additional risk.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Taxonomy

The Assam macaque is scientifically classified under the binomial name Macaca assamensis (McClelland, 1840), with the specific epithet derived from its type locality in the Assam region of northeastern India. The full taxonomic hierarchy is as follows:
RankClassification
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumChordata
ClassMammalia
OrderPrimates
SuborderHaplorhini
InfraorderSimiiformes
FamilyCercopithecidae
GenusMacaca
SpeciesM. assamensis
The original description was published as Macacus assamensis McClelland, 1840, with subsequent synonyms including Macaca coolidgei Osgood, 1932; historically, the species has been classified within the sinica-group of macaques alongside species such as M. sinica and M. thibetana. Two subspecies are currently recognized per IUCN assessment (last evaluated 2015, no update as of 2025): the nominate eastern form M. a. assamensis (McClelland, 1840), distributed from eastern through northeastern and into , and the western form M. a. pelops (Hodgson, 1840), found primarily in western and adjacent regions of . Recent studies, including a 2024 phylogeographic analysis, propose elevating M. a. pelops to full species status due to deep , though this remains debated and not yet reflected in major assessments. The is assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN, a status assigned in 2008 and last evaluated in 2015, due to ongoing degradation, fragmentation, and pressures leading to a suspected reduction of less than 30% over three generations (generation length 10-12 years).

Phylogenetic relationships

The macaque (Macaca assamensis) belongs to the sinica group within the Macaca, a characterized by parapatric distributions across South and and comprising six recognized : M. assamensis, M. radiata, M. sinica, M. thibetana, M. munzala, and M. leucogenys. A 2024 study proposes a seventh distinct corresponding to the western form (formerly M. a. pelops), based on phylogenetic and species delimitation analyses, though this elevation is not yet consensus. Close relatives include the (M. thibetana), to which the eastern macaque is phylogenetically sister. Molecular clock analyses using concatenated sequences (CYTB, COI, and regions) estimate the common ancestor of the sinica group diverged approximately 2.61 million years ago (95% highest posterior density: 2.23–3.09 mya), with subsequent splits among species occurring around 1.0–2.0 mya, aligning with Pleistocene climatic fluctuations that facilitated Himalayan radiation. evidence from Pleistocene sites in southern and , including fragmentary remains attributable to early sinica-group forms, supports this timeline, indicating an Asian dispersal and diversification during the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition. Genetic studies employing and nuclear markers reveal potential hybridization risks between the Assam macaque and the (M. mulatta) in overlap zones of northeastern and , where interspecific mating has been observed, potentially leading to and mitochondrial . A 2021 multilocus analysis and the 2024 phylogeographic study highlight debate over the taxonomic status of the western (M. a. pelops), with evidence of a distinct lineage (evolutionary distance ~0.046 from M. munzala) warranting consideration for elevation to full level based on deep . In broader primate phylogeny, the branches within the (Cercopithecidae family, subfamily), with the sinica group's radiation linked to adaptations for high-altitude environments in the , such as enhanced and foraging strategies in montane forests.

Physical description

Morphology and appearance

The (Macaca assamensis) is a medium-sized characterized by a robust build adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial lifestyles. Its head-body length measures 51–73.5 cm, with a tail length of 15–30 cm that is distinctly shorter than the body, supporting efficient movement on the ground. Adults exhibit , with males weighing 10–14.5 kg and females 8–12 kg. The exhibits a pelage ranging from yellowish-grey to dark brown. The face features dark brownish to purplish skin that is largely hairless except for prominent , while the ischial callosities—specialized sitting pads—are off-white, aiding in prolonged perching. Subtle variations in pelage coloration occur between eastern and western populations, though the core pattern remains consistent across the . Cranially, the Assam possesses a prognathic muzzle typical of cercopithecines, housing 32 teeth arranged in the standard dental formula of 2.1.2.3 (incisors:canines:premolars:molars per quadrant). The strong, projecting canines are particularly pronounced in males, contributing to their overall dimorphism. Sensory adaptations include trichromatic , which enables effective detection of ripe fruits in forested environments, along with sensitive tactile for close-range and manipulation. Additionally, expansive cheek pouches allow temporary , facilitating rapid foraging without immediate consumption. Sexual dimorphism extends beyond size to include pronounced male canines for competitive interactions and female anogenital swelling during estrus, which becomes visibly tumescent to signal reproductive readiness. These traits underscore the species' adaptations within complex social and ecological contexts.

Subspecies variation

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is currently recognized as comprising two subspecies: the eastern Assam macaque (M. a. assamensis) and the western Assam macaque (M. a. ), distinguished primarily by morphological traits and geographic separation along the valley. The eastern subspecies (M. a. assamensis) is distributed across the and , including parts of south of the (such as and ), , , , , , and , typically at elevations from 15 to 3,200 m. Its pelage features brownish shades with a lighter yellowish or golden hue on the crown, neck, and shoulders, darkening toward the lower back, while the underparts are often whitish or ashy. Facial skin is light pink or flesh-colored, occasionally grayish, with prominent side whiskers or a in some adults; the tail measures 25–59% of head-body length. Body size is relatively large, with males reaching up to 73 cm in head-body length and weights typically 10–14.5 kg. In contrast, the western subspecies (M. a. pelops) occupies regions north of the Brahmaputra, including northern (Arunachal Pradesh, ), , , and parts of , at elevations of 60–3,000 m. Its pelage is similarly brownish but tends toward darker tones overall, with uniform brownish-grey to yellowish-grey fur that is darker in exposed areas and whitish-blonde to ashy-white on the and inner limbs. The face is light pink or flesh-colored without prominent or , though males exhibit a dark snout around the and whitish-yellow skin, while females show crimson-red to pinkish-red hues around the eyes and cheeks. The tail is relatively longer, comprising 50–70% of head-body length (averaging about 35 cm), and individuals are somewhat stockier with head-body lengths around 60 cm and weights exceeding 12 kg in some cases. Comparatively, the eastern form's lighter pelage and underfur may aid in denser, humid understories, while the western form's darker, thicker pelage aligns with adaptations to cooler, higher-elevation environments with sparser vegetation. Tail length ratios differ notably, with pelops exhibiting proportionally longer tails that enhance balance in more arboreal lifestyles at higher altitudes. No significant dental variations have been reported between the , supporting their close relation within the species. Field identification of can be challenging due to overlapping traits, such as variable tail lengths and pelage shades influenced by age, sex, and environment; sporadic (bright orange fur) occurs in both. Hybrid zones, particularly in areas of partial like near Lamacamp in , produce intermediate forms that blur distinctions, relying on pelage tone, snout coloration, and tail-to-body ratios for differentiation.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is native to the and the in South and . Its core range spans multiple countries, including , , southern (particularly , , , and ), (such as and ), northern , , northern Laos, northern , and northern . A 2024 survey in confirmed its presence in both protected and non-protected forests. Populations are discontinuous due to , with the occurring from lowlands at approximately 200 m elevation to highland areas up to 4,000 m. Historically, the Assam macaque's distribution was more continuous, but it has become fragmented with local extirpations in some lowland areas. Two subspecies are recognized based on geographic variation: M. a. assamensis (the nominal subspecies) occupies eastern portions of the range from northern Myanmar through southern China, northern Laos, northern Vietnam, and northern Thailand; while M. a. pelops is found in western areas, including western Nepal, northwest India (such as Uttarakhand), northeast India, and Bhutan. Overlap zones between the subspecies occur in Bhutan, where intermediate forms have been noted. Recent surveys have confirmed stable populations in peripheral areas, such as the Basin in western , where troops were documented in 2024 across elevations of 1,132–1,840 m, highlighting persistent pockets amid broader fragmentation. These findings underscore the ' adaptability to mid-hill riverine zones within its overall range.

Preferred habitats

The Assam macaque primarily inhabits subtropical and temperate broadleaf forests, including montane and semi- types, as well as mixed and coniferous forests in higher elevations. These habitats often feature dense canopies with tall trees, providing essential arboreal cover for movement and shelter. In regions like and northeastern , populations also occupy forests and bamboo-dominated thickets, which offer additional structural complexity. While the shows some adaptability to secondary forests, it predominantly favors undisturbed primary woodlands over degraded or open areas. This prefers altitudinal zones between 1,000 and 3,000 meters, though it demonstrates flexibility by occurring in lowlands below 200 meters in wetter eastern regions and extending into subalpine areas up to 4,000 meters in the . Such distribution reflects its tolerance for varied elevations, from foothill semievergreen forests to higher montane broadleaf zones. Climatically, it thrives in monsoon-influenced environments of South and , where seasonal supports lush vegetation, and it exhibits resilience to cooler temperatures and occasional in upper elevations. Microhabitat selection emphasizes proximity to water sources, such as river basins and within broadleaf forests, which facilitate hydration and access to riparian . Groups often utilize edge habitats adjacent to human-modified landscapes, including temple grounds or forest-agriculture interfaces, to expand available without fully entering open areas. Regarding fragmentation, the prefers contiguous forest patches exceeding 500 hectares to accommodate typical home ranges of 40-50 hectares per group, as smaller or heavily logged fragments limit ranging and increase exposure to isolation. It actively avoids extensively disturbed sites, underscoring its reliance on intact woodland connectivity for viability.

Ecology and behavior

Social structure and group dynamics

Assam macaques live in stable, multi-male, multi-female social groups typically ranging from 10 to 50 individuals, with an average size of 20 to 25 members. These groups consist of related adult females forming the core, along with several adult males, subadults, juveniles, and infants. Female is characteristic, where females remain in their natal group for life, creating matrilineal kin groups that provide a foundation for social stability and formation. In contrast, males disperse from their natal group upon reaching maturity, usually around 4-5 years of age, to join other groups, thereby reducing and introducing . The social hierarchy within Assam macaque groups is despotic, particularly among females, with dominance ranks inherited maternally through matrilines, leading to , linear hierarchies that persist across generations. Higher-ranking females and their kin enjoy priority access to resources and opportunities, enforced through such as threats, chases, and bites. Among males, dominance is more fluid and achieved through coalitions, where alliances among lower-ranking males challenge superiors for access and rank advancement. These coalitions often involve triadic interactions, including male-infant-male contacts, which help maintain bonds and reduce conflict among males. Intergroup relations among Assam macaque troops are primarily territorial, with neighboring groups defending core areas through vocalizations, displays, and occasional aggressive encounters to protect resources like food patches. Conflicts arise over overlapping home ranges, particularly in areas with limited resources, but can also involve opportunistic alliances during encounters with predators or other . Hybridization occurs with sympatric such as rhesus macaques in overlap zones, facilitated by intergroup interactions that allow mating between groups. Communication in Assam macaques relies on a diverse vocal , including coos for contact and affiliation, screams during agonistic encounters, and barks to signal or territorial defense. Facial expressions such as grimaces and direct stares convey submission or , complementing vocal signals in maintaining group cohesion. Grooming serves as a key affiliative behavior for , , and stress reduction, comprising approximately 10-15% of daily activity time and directed preferentially toward kin and partners. Group fission and fusion events are rare in macaques, with troops maintaining stable cohesion except in cases of very large groups exceeding 50 individuals, where subgroups may temporarily split during due to distribution. Seasonal variations in food availability can influence group cohesion, leading to tighter formations during to enhance predator vigilance and efficiency.

Diet, foraging, and activity patterns

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is omnivorous, with its diet varying by habitat and food availability. In tropical forests of , the diet consists primarily of fruits (42.4% of feeding time), leaves (21.2%), and animal matter (22.2%), including , spiders, mollusks, and occasionally small vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, and amphibians. In contrast, populations in forests of are more folivorous, relying heavily on young leaves (74.1–75.5% of the diet), with fruits comprising 17.4–20.1%, mature leaves 1.8–3.3%, and flowers or other plant parts making up the remainder; animal matter is minimal in these environments. In wild groups in Nepal's , the diet is 98.6% plant-based (fruits 65.6%, leaves 11.1%), with 5.7% and negligible human food. Opportunistic feeding extends to human crops such as cereals and in fringe areas. Foraging is opportunistic and diurnal, with peaks in the morning and evening; individuals use expandable cheek pouches to store food temporarily, allowing efficient collection during safe periods. Seasonal shifts occur in response to resource availability: fruit intake increases during wet summers when ripe fruits are abundant, while leaf consumption rises in drier winters as fallback foods. In limestone habitats, year-round access to young bamboo leaves buffers against fruit scarcity. A 2024 study in Guangxi limestone forests found that Assamese macaques consume more fruits (30%) during rainy seasons with higher temperatures and day length, shifting to young leaves (59%) in dry seasons, with resting time reduced and moving increased in response to resource peaks. The activity budget allocates approximately 40–55% of time to feeding, 19–25% to traveling, 14–15% to resting, 12–15% to social interactions, and the remainder to other behaviors, with variations between wild and semi-provisioned groups. Locomotion is versatile, combining arboreal climbing and leaping in trees (85–98% of time in wild groups) with terrestrial quadrupedal walking on the ground (up to 40% in some forests). Crop raiding is increasingly prevalent in human-dominated fringe areas, particularly targeting (47%) and potatoes (15%), which exacerbates conflict with farmers.

Reproduction and development

The Assam macaque exhibits a polygynandrous within its multimale-multifemale social groups, where females undergo seasonal polyestrus peaking from to , leading to concentrated conceptions during this period. Males compete for opportunities primarily through consortships, forming temporary close associations with receptive females to guard access and reduce mating by rivals, though by incoming males poses a to existing offspring, potentially shortening and accelerating subsequent conceptions. This system aligns with broader male hierarchies that influence success, as higher-ranking males secure more consortships. Reproductive physiology in the Assam macaque is characterized by a period of 164–170 days, typically resulting in a single offspring, with twins occurring rarely at less than 5% of births. Births are seasonal, occurring mainly from to , synchronized with resource availability post-mating season, and newborns weigh approximately 400 grams. Females reach at 4–5 years, marked by their first conception, while males mature slightly later at 5–6 years, often coinciding with natal dispersal. Interbirth intervals average 1–2 years and follow a , with shorter intervals (around 14 months) comprising about 32% of cases and longer ones (around 23 months) the majority, influenced by duration and infant survival. Parental care involves biparental and alloparental contributions, with mothers providing primary nourishment and transport during an initial clinging phase lasting the first 3 months, followed by between 12 and 18 months. Females engage in , where non-mothers assist in carrying and grooming , enhancing group cohesion and reducing maternal burden, while preferred males—often those with high paternity certainty—offer protection through proximity maintenance and agonistic support against threats, spending up to 11% of their time near immatures. This male care, initiated by in 98% of interactions, persists through but declines thereafter, supporting higher infant survival rates. Life history traits reflect a slow reproductive strategy typical of macaques, with a wild lifespan of 20–30 years (maximum observed 31 years) and up to 40 years in , featuring rapid juvenile growth followed by slower adult somatic development. at birth is approximately 1:1, and overall shows actuarial , with 50% to 21–22 years and higher mortality in older females due to reproductive wear. Factors influencing include food abundance, particularly availability, which positively correlates with fertility and infant , while stressors such as energetic constraints from or dependent offspring presence can delay conceptions by up to 49 days and reduce success rates.

Conservation and threats

Population status and threats

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is classified as Near Threatened on the , with population size unknown but inferred to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals based on available data. This population is declining by approximately 20–25% over the past three generations (about 30–36 years), driven primarily by habitat degradation and direct exploitation. Subpopulations are highly fragmented, with many consisting of fewer than 250 individuals, for example, a recent survey in western estimated approximately 159 individuals across 10 groups. Habitat loss and degradation, driven by , , and infrastructure development, represent the most pressing threat, leading to ongoing fragmentation across the range. exacerbates the decline, with individuals targeted for consumption, the international pet trade, and uses including fur, bones, and other body parts believed to treat ailments like . Additional pressures include , for the western subpopulation, projected to reduce suitable by up to 35.5% by 2070 under a moderate emissions (RCP6.0), forcing altitudinal shifts and range contractions. transmission from humans and poses risks in areas of close contact, potentially establishing reservoirs in wild populations. Hybridization with sympatric , often facilitated by anthropogenic releases or alterations, threatens genetic integrity and dilutes distinct gene pools, as documented in cases from and the Himalayan foothills; recent 2025 reports highlight ongoing risks from hybridization due to improper releases of captive primates in . Human-wildlife conflict intensifies these threats, particularly through crop raiding on maize, vegetables, and fruits, which prompts retaliatory killings by farmers in India and Nepal. Recent reports also note ongoing illegal pet trade and confiscations in Vietnam, though stable populations are observed in some Chinese reserves, alongside overall declines despite legal protections, underscoring the species' vulnerability across its range.

Conservation efforts and management

The Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) is protected under international and national laws across its range. It is listed in Appendix II of the (), which regulates to prevent , with the listing effective since 1977. In , the species is classified under Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, affording it moderate protection against and . In , it holds Protected status (Appendix I) under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973, prohibiting , capture, or . In , it is designated as a second-class state-protected wild animal under the revised Wildlife Protection Law, following a downgrade from first-class in 2020 due to population stabilization efforts. The species occurs in over 40 protected areas, covering a portion of its range but leaving much habitat outside formal safeguards. In , it inhabits at least 41 sites in the northeast, including in , where groups forage in tropical evergreen forests. In , populations are recorded in , Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, Annapurna Conservation Area, and . In , it is present in Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve in Province, supporting amid and montane habitats. Conservation initiatives emphasize community involvement and research to address threats. In and , community-based programs promote awareness to reduce and habitat encroachment, often integrating local stakeholders in monitoring efforts. The IUCN Species Survival Commission's Primate Specialist Group supports regional assessments and action planning, including a 2015 evaluation that informed priority sites. In , collaborative surveys by NGOs like WWF aid in mapping distributions for targeted habitat restoration, though projects remain nascent. Management strategies include enforcement and habitat enhancement. Anti-poaching patrols operate in key reserves like Namdapha and Langtang to curb hunting for bushmeat and skins. Efforts to establish habitat corridors aim to link fragmented forests, facilitating gene flow in India and Nepal. Ecotourism in Assam's protected areas generates funds for protection, with regulated viewing minimizing disturbance. Captive breeding programs exist in facilities like Assam State Zoo, but success is limited, with fewer than 100 individuals in ex situ populations globally. Future strategies focus on adaptive measures amid emerging pressures. Recommendations include genetic monitoring via non-invasive sampling to track diversity, particularly in isolated subpopulations. Human-wildlife conflict mitigation, such as promoting alternative crops near farmlands, is prioritized in and . Climate-resilient habitat management addresses projected declines in suitable areas by 2050, advocating expanded protected networks and restoration. Downlisting from Near Threatened may be feasible by 2030 if decreases and connectivity improves.

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  51. https://english.www.gov.cn/statecouncil/ministries/202006/23/content_WS5ef154e7c6d0a6946639c8ff.html
  52. https://www.bradtguides.com/wildlife-reserves-in-china/
  53. https://www.rufford.org/projects/laxman-khanal/sustainable-conservation-of-assamese-macaque-macaca-assamensis-in-the-catchment-area-of-budhigandaki-hydroelectric-project-nepal/
  54. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989423002974
  55. https://wildlifenavigator.com/raimona-national-park/
  56. https://www.cza.nic.in/uploads/documents/reports/english/AR_assamzoo_2122.pdf
  57. https://www.rufford.org/projects/laxman-khanal/blending-fine-scale-exploration-socioecology-and-conservation-genetics-conserve-enigmatic-assam-macaques-nepal/
  58. http://hubble-live-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/psgb/redactor2_assets/files/150/Maan_Barua_FINAL_report.pdf
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